Field dependence-independence and participation in physical activity by college students

Field-independent individuals, compared with field-dependent individuals, have higher sports potential and advantages in sport-related settings. Little research, however, has been conducted on the association of field dependence-independence and participation in physical activity. The study examined this association for college students who participated in physical activities in and beyond physical education classes. The Group Embedded Figures Test distinguished 40 field-dependent from 40 field-independent participants. Activity logs during one semester showed that field-independent participants were significantly more physically active and their physical activity behaviors were more sport-related than those of field-dependent participants.     

Field-dependence/field-independence and labeling of facial affect.

56 high school students were administered the Group Embedded Figures Test and the Pictures of Facial Affect. A low Pearson product-moment correlation of .02 was obtained between the measures. Data indicated that field-dependent and field-independent individuals were not signficantly different in their skills of labeling pictures of facial affect.     

Do confusing information and egocentric instructions influence perception?

In an investigation of psychological differentiation, Witkin's personality dimension, 12 field-dependent and 12 field-independent students were selected from a population of college men in summerschool based on their Embedded Figures Test scores. They were assigned to conditions, given egocentric or gravitational instructions, and provided clarified or obscuring feedback about their performance on the Rod and Frame Test. Although instructions had no effect, students with clarified feedback performed better than those whose feedback was confusing. Field-independent men had less difficulty with the confusing feedback than did field-dependent men.     

Reexamination of relations between the Myers-Briggs type indicator and field dependence-independence

The Group Embedded Figures Test and the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator were administered to 210 undergraduate and graduate students. Bivariate relations between the embedded figures test and the Indicator scales of Extraversion-Introversion (EI), Thinking-Feeling (TF), and Judgment-Perception (JP) were nonsignificant while the relation between scores on embedded figures and Sensing-Intuition (SN) was statistically significant. ESFP, ISFJ, and ESFJ types were significantly more field-dependent than the INFP and ENTP types.     

DEVELOPMENT OF COGNITIVE STYLES AMONG CHICANOS IN TRADITIONAL AND DUALISTIC COMMUNITIES*

The study examined the development of cognitive styles among 182 Chicano children growing up in two communities, one traditional and one dualistic. The Children's Embedded Figures Test was employed as the measure of field independence. In the first and fifth grades, Chicano children in the traditional community were found to have a relatively field-dependent cognitive style, whereas those in the dualistic community had a relatively field-independent cognitive style. No such difference was present in the third grade. In both communities there was a progressive increase in field independence with increasing age. There were no significant sex differences in cognitive style.     

Field-dependence, sensation-seeking, and preference of paintings

College students (122 males and 88 females) completed the Group Embedded Figures Test measure of field-dependence, and Sensation-Seeking Scale, and performed preference ratings on 40 slides of paintings. Factor analysis revealed six hypothesized and one unhypothesized preference dimensions that underlay preference ratings of paintings. It was hypothesized that the cognitive structuring ability associated with field-dependence would result in certain relationships between field-dependence and preference for paintings. Further, it was hypothesized that preference for novel, complex, and dynamic experiences, associated with sensation-seeking, would result in certain relationships between sensation-seeking and preference for paintings. For the full sample, three of five hypothesized relationships between field-dependence and preference for paintings were obtained, while three of four hypothesized relationships were found between sensation-seeking and preference for paintings.     

Comparative analysis of different correction methods for measuring Rod-and-Frame Test performance

A comparative analysis was conducted of five different methods for scoring the Rod-and-Frame Test to examine the convergent validities of each of the five methods with performance on the Embedded Figures Test for a sample of 408 13- to 16-yr.-olds. The scoring methods included the absolute error, the algebraic error, the absolute value of the algebraic error, the frame effect, and an assessment of relative field dependence. Correlations obtained among the five methods and the Embedded Figures Test indicated different patterns for boys and girls. In general, the method which employed the absolute value of the algebraic error yielded the strongest convergent validity coefficients with scores on the Embedded Figures Test and Group Embedded Figures Test for boys (.62 and -.54, respectively), although, for girls, the absolute algebraic error and absolute error both yielded coefficients of .50 with Embedded Figures Test scores and -.46 with Group Embedded Figures Test scores.     

几种场相依/场独立测量工具间的相关研究

镶嵌图形测验、框线测验和认知偏差任务是目前国际上常用的三种场相依/场独立的测量工具。该研究发现：1）在框线测验中,个体不受背景信息干扰的能力,与整合背景信息的能力存在显著正相关关系;2）执行镶嵌图形测验愈佳者,执行框线测验的绝对任务与相对任务也愈佳;3）但认知偏差任务与镶嵌图形测验以及框线测验均无相关关系。因此,个体在感知过程中对场的利用,与其在推理决策过程中对场的利用,很可能是两个独立的心理过程。此外,由于镶嵌图形测验与智商测验有相关,框线测验可能更适合于跨文化心理学中对场相依/场独立概念的测量。     

Laterality and field dependence

The purposes of this study were (1) to replicate a right visual-field advantage for a version of the Embedded Figures Test modified for tachistoscopic presentation and (2) to test for a relationship between field independence and performance on modified Embedded Figures Test items presented to the right visual-field. 34 right-handed subjects were presented Embedded Figures Test items to the left, center, and right visual-fields for 150 msec. The Group Embedded Figures Test was also given. Results showed a right visual-field advantage on the modified embedded-figures test and (2) a negative relationship between Group Embedded Figures Test performance and right visual-field scores. These findings were discussed in terms of the differences between the two versions of the embedded-figures test, memory for simple figures, specificity of judgment, and sustained versus tachistoscopic perception. A tentative conclusion suggests that a better internal representation of the briefly presented complex figures places field-independent subjects at a disadvantage on the modified version of the test.     

Students' performance in accounting: differential effect of field dependence-independence as a learning style

This study examined the differential moderating effects associated with field dependence-independence and perceptions of stress on students' performance after controlling for SAT Mathematics and Verbal scores as well as students' actual effort on homework. The average performance of 178 third-year accounting majors over three examinations was used to evaluate their understanding of financial accounting. The students also took the Group Embedded Figures Test. While the data indicate that the most significant variables were students' effort, SAT Verbal scores, and their perceptions of stress, these variables were differentially associated with students' performance depending upon whether the student was classified as a field-independent or field-dependent learner.     

目标数量与运动框架旋转角度对不同场认知风格个体多目标追踪表现的影响

通过改变目标数量、运动框架突变旋转角度探究不同场认知风格被试在多目标追踪任务中的表现。结果发现：(1)在任务难度较低(运动参考框架稳定, 目标数量为3和4)和任务难度中等(运动参考框架突变向右旋转20°, 目标数量为4)条件下, 场独立型被试的多目标追踪表现均显著好于场依存型被试。在任务难度较高(运动框架稳定, 目标数量为5以及运动参考框架突变向右旋转40°, 目标数量为4)条件下, 两组被试差异不显著。表明不同场认知风格被试追踪表现受任务难度影响; (2)随着目标数量由3至5增多, 追踪负荷增大使被试的追踪成绩显著下降; (3)相比运动框架稳定, 运动框架向右突变旋转20°和40°均显著削弱了被试的追踪表现。旋转角度变化破坏了场景连续性, 影响了追踪表现。     

Restrained eating: Mediator of gender differences on cognitive restructuring tasks?

This study examined the hypothesis that gender differences in eating restraint might mediate previously reported gender differences in cognitive restructuring tasks. Thirty female and 30 male college students matched for dietary restraint were administered two tests that had differentiated females from males and obese from normal-weight individuals in previous research: Luchins' water jar problems, and the Embedded Figures Test. On the water jar problems, use of the initial solution when no longer most efficient was greater for restrained eaters than for unrestrained eaters and no gender differences were found, supporting the hypothesis. On the Embedded Figures Test, males performed better than females, with restrained females tending to perform most poorly.Portions of this paper were presented at the meeting of the Midwestern Psychological Association, Chicago, May 1985.     

Effect of Color Coding on Visually Oriented Tests With Students of Different Cognitive Styles

The purpose of this study was to examine the effects that differentially coded (black and white and color) illustrations had on students (N = 117) who were classified as field dependent, field neutral, or field independent as a result of their performance on the visually oriented Group Embedded Figures Test (Witkin, Olt-man, Rashin, & Karp, 1971). Students were randomly assigned to two instructional treatments complemented by illustrations (black and white and colored). After receiving their respective treatments, students reviewed two visually oriented criterion tests. Two-way analyses of variance conducted on achievement scores indicated that field independents scored significantly higher than did field dependents on both visual tests, and differences between field-dependent and field-independent learners who received the color-coded treatments on the visual identification test were insignificant. Results indicate that field dependency is an important instructional variable and that for some types of learning objectives the process of color coding instructional materials may reduce achievement differences attributed to differences in cognitive style.     

Structure of Witkin's Embedded Figures Test

A number of reports have indicated that Witkin's Embedded Figures Test correlates with performance on standard intelligence tests. This finding was replicated in a recent factor analytic study when the test loaded substantially on a factor best representing the performance subtests of the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS). However, the embedded figures also loaded on an uncorrelated factor, in addition to those normally associated with WAIS, which would relate well to Witkin's conception of psychological differentiation. These loadings on two uncorrelated factors suggested that the factorial structure of the Embedded Figures Test should be examined. An item analysis indicated a bi-factorial structure and, as presently constituted, the scale will provide misleading and ambiguous information.     

Embedded Figures Test compared with clinical tests of abstraction and memory in intellectual impairment

Results on a batter of memory and concept formation tests were compared with performance on the Embedded Figures Test (EFT) and the Visual Gestalts Test for 50 psychiatric patients with intellectual impairment (35 males and 15 females, aged 25–69 years). The EFT only correlated with the concept formation tests and the Visual Gestalts Test. Furthermore, an interrelationship between the EFT results and the degree of intellectual impairment was found. Also, the patients' performance on the EFT was significantly impairment was found. Also, the patients' performance on the EFT was significantly poorer than that of normal individuals. Thus it was concluded that the EFT should be considered as a visuo-spatial test of abstraction, sensitive to intellectual impairment.     

Field independence and simultaneous processing in preschool children

The present study examined the relations between field independence and simultaneous processing of preschool children as measured by the Preschool Embedded Figures Test (PEFT) and subtests from the Kaufman Assessment Battery for Children (K-ABC), respectively. Data partially supported the assumption that field-independent children would perform significantly better on simultaneous processing tasks in general. Significant age and sex differences on field-independence/field-dependence and simultaneous-processing abilities were found among the embedded figures task and selected portions of the K-ABC. Analysis of embedded figures further indicated age differences, but no significant sex differences.     

Type a behavior,field dependence,and hypervigilance: Toward increased Type A specificity

Field dependence and hypervigilance are two modes of sensory information processing that have been related to cardiovascular functioning. Two studies examined the relationship between these variables and Type A behavior. In both studies, Jenkins Activity Survey-defined Type A and B subjects were assessed for field dependence by the Embedded Figures Test (EFT) and then performed a size estimation task—the measure of hypervigilance. Results indicated that field-dependent Type A's were most hypervigilant. The possible contribution that perceptual style might make to the greater predictive specificity of Type A measures was discussed.Portions of this research were presented at the meeting of the American Psychological Association, Toronto, Canada, August 1984. The authors express their appreciation to Lois Haggard for the design of materials for Study II, and to Rick Smith and Kathy Connell for assistance in conducting Study II.     

A modification in scoring the ABC Scale

The scoring procedures for the Articulation of the Body-Concept (ABC) Scale to use with three-, four- and five-year-old children were modified to determine their degree of field-dependence-independence. A total of 300 children, who obtained a score of one or better on the ABC Scale, were administered the Preschool Embedded Figures Test (PEFT) and the ABC Scale. The ABC Scale was scored using its scoring procedures and the scoring procedures for the Goodenough-Harris Drawing Test (GHDT). Scores on the PEFT, ABC Scale and GHDT were correlated with each other. Correlations among all cognitive measures ranged from .88 to .99, which were high and statistically significant (p < .0001). Therefore, the scoring procedures for the GHDT can be substituted in scoring the ABC Scale in assessing young children's field-dependence-independence.     

Children's embedded figures test and matching familiar figures test-20: factorial structure for boys and girls from 6 to 11 years old.

The factorial structure of two tests of cognitive style (the Children's Embedded Figures Test and the Matching Familiar Figures Test-20) and one test of cognitive ability (Raven Progressive Matrices) was examined in this study with a sample of 337 boys and 287 girls between ages 6 and 11 years. Factor I related to Impulsivity and Factor II related to cognitive ability and disembedding skills, which were stable across age groups and sex and accounted for 84.6% of variance.