Predicting diagnosis performance with measures of cognitive style

This study examines the relationship between performance on a context-independent fault diagnosis task and two dimensions of cognitive style: field dependence/independence (D-I) and focusing/scanning (F-S). The effects on diagnosis performance of training and the ability of both dimensions of style jointly to predict fault-finding ability were considered. The results showed that field independents and focusers were superior fault diagnosticians. Training, in the form of verbal feedback messages, was uniformly effective for the D-I dimension although field independents maintained a superior level of performance, over field dependents. In general, for the F-S dimension, training had little effect on either the focusers or scanners. A combination of scores on the F-S and D-I dimensions significantly enhanced the proportion of the variance in testing efficiency that could be accounted for during fault-finding. Finally it is argued that the F-S and D-I dimensions should be recognized as measures of ability, not style. Future research should be directed at identifying between subject differences on fault diagnosis tasks with reference to theories of information processing.     

Cognitive-style differences in belief persistence after evidential discrediting

Cognitive-style differences in belief persistence were investigated in a debriefing paradigm by comparing the reactions of field-dependent and field-independent persons to the total evidential discrediting of their beliefs. Ss were exposed to apparent success or failure experiences via false performance feedback on a novel discrimination task. Following a debriefing procedure which revealed the bogus nature of the feedback. Ss estimated their actual performance and ability at the task. The results showed that belief persistence after evidential discrediting was greater for field dependents than for field independents. Explanations of the findings based on dissonance-reduction mechanism and disbelief in the discrediting were discussed, but the preferred interpretation of the results involved differences in cognitive re-structuring as a function of cognitive style.     

Stimulus factors in children's learning set performance

Three experiments are reported which investigate the effects of attentional factors on learning set performance of children. Number of varying irrelevant dimensions, trials per problem, and age were examined. The first experiment tests with 6- and 8-year-old-children the effects of one as opposed to two varying irrelevant dimensions. An interaction between age and dimensions showed younger children to be differentially affected by the treatment conditions, two varying irrelevant dimensions being more difficult than one. There was no difference between treatments for the older children, nor between older and younger subjects receiving one varying irrelevant dimension. In the second experiment, 6- and 8-year-olds were examined on two varying irrelevant dimension problems, receiving either 4 or 12 trials per problem. Amount of exposure within-problems, affected performance with 12 trials per problem resulting in superior performance at both age levels. A third experiment tested 6-, 8-, and 10-year-old-children using one and two varying irrelevant dimension problems with 4 and 12 trials per problem. Results confirmed the finding that learning set acquisition is influenced by irrelevant dimensions and within-problems exposure, with these effects interacting with age and amount of training. These findings support the utility of applications of an attentional analysis to the learning set performance of normal children.     

The Beavers Systems Model of Family Functioning

Family competence and family style are the two main dimensions of the Beavers Systems Model of Family Functioning. The competence dimension ranges from optimal through adequate, midrange and borderline to severely dysfunctional. The style dimension ranges from centripetal to centrifugal. When the two dimensions are combined, they diagramatically define nine distinct family groupings, three of which are relatively functional and six of which are thought to be sufficiently problematic to require clinical intervention. A family's status on the competence and style dimensions may be established with the Beavers interactional scales. The self-report family inventory may be used to evaluate family members' perceptions of their status on the competence dimension. The reliability and validity of the self-report instrument and observational rating scales have been documented in over thirty papers and books published by the Beavers research team since 1970. The model has proved useful in training, research and clinical work.     

Differentiation: Field dependence,spatial ability,and hemispheric specialization1

Psychological differentiation, as measured by field independence, is studied in relationship to cerebral hemispheric differentiation as assessed through dichotic listening and spatial task performance. Predictions regarding right-hemisphere functions and field independence were confirmed. More differentiated versus less differentiated right-hemisphere superiorities are distinguished and discussed in light of the field-dependence construct. The dimension of integration, characteristic of increasing differentiation, frames the prediction that field independents are better able to utilize the right hemisphere on typically left-hemisphere tasks. The results are discussed in relationship to the potential role of cerebral mechanisms underlying different defensive styles, and in regard to the neurophychological search for covariance between psychological and neurophysiological parameters.     

Learning spatial dimensions with a visual sensory aid: Molyneux revisited

The relationship between sensory aid research and several areas of perceptual learning has been explored with five experiments on learning the use of the Binaural Sensory Aid, an electronic sensor in which pitch specifies distance and interaural amplitude difference (IAD) specifies direction. The training task required reaching to objects in near space, with tactile error feedback. Perceptual learning for both dimensions was demonstrated within 72 trials, giving a level of performance comparable to the use of a natural sound source, although performance with the direction cue did not reach asymptote until a second training session. Training was unaffected by various kinds of regularity in the spatial target sequences, or by a reduction in the number of spatial target locations until only two locations were used; at this point directional accuracy declines. Training only one dimension at a time did not produce additional improvement of performance on that dimension, but did impair generalization of the direction cue. Learning of the pitch-distance dimension was generally better than that of the IAD dimension, possibly because of its greater discriminability with this device. Generally, the pattern of results indicates that in learning to use such devices subjects readily determine the sensory dimensions of the codes and have considerable ability to generalize to new locations.     

An attentional analysis of children's sensitivity to artistic style in paintings

This study investigated the claim that children are not able to judge artistic style when it conflicts with subject matter cues in paintings, using stimulus and methodological controls not employed previously. 6 and 9 year old children and adults were asked to judge which member of a pair of paintings looked like it was painted by the same painter as the target in a matching to sample task. Style choices were always possible and subject matter matches were either not possible because that dimension was controlled in the stimulus set (control), or possible but in conflict with style choices (experimental). The levels of discriminability of style and subject matter differences were varied. For control conditions, we found that performance was poor for all ages when style differences were low in discriminability and subject matter varied across the three stimuli; otherwise it was high. For experimental conditions, we found that irrelevant variation of subject matter was more detrimental if differences on that dimension were highly discriminable. Even the youngest children could make style matches and could do so even when a subject matter match was also possible, suggesting that they are sensitive to artistic style and can focus on that dimension in the face of irrelevant variation on other dimensions. The results are discussed as they relate to earlier claims that children are not able to judge artistic style and to the implications for training that follow from those claims.     

A test of the generalizability of a recently suggested conceptual model for assessment center ratings

The present study replicated and extended research concerning a recently suggested conceptual model of the underlying factors of dimension ratings in assessment centers (ACs) proposed by Hoffman, Melchers, Blair, Kleinmann, and Ladd that includes broad dimension factors, exercise factors, and a general performance factor. We evaluated the criterion-related validity of these different components and expanded their nomological network. Results showed that all components (i.e., broad dimensions, exercises, general performance) were significant predictors of training performance. Furthermore, broad dimensions showed incremental validity beyond exercises and general performance. Finally, relationships between the AC factors and individual difference constructs (e.g., Big Five, core self-evaluations, positive and negative affectivity) supported the construct-related validity of broad dimensions and provided further insights in the nature of the different AC components.     

Effect of Color Coding on Visually Oriented Tests With Students of Different Cognitive Styles

The purpose of this study was to examine the effects that differentially coded (black and white and color) illustrations had on students (N = 117) who were classified as field dependent, field neutral, or field independent as a result of their performance on the visually oriented Group Embedded Figures Test (Witkin, Olt-man, Rashin, & Karp, 1971). Students were randomly assigned to two instructional treatments complemented by illustrations (black and white and colored). After receiving their respective treatments, students reviewed two visually oriented criterion tests. Two-way analyses of variance conducted on achievement scores indicated that field independents scored significantly higher than did field dependents on both visual tests, and differences between field-dependent and field-independent learners who received the color-coded treatments on the visual identification test were insignificant. Results indicate that field dependency is an important instructional variable and that for some types of learning objectives the process of color coding instructional materials may reduce achievement differences attributed to differences in cognitive style.     

高考数学试卷多维项目反应理论的分析及应用

高考数学学科试卷的试题综合性较强,一道试题通常考查多种能力属性,而基于单维性假设下的经典测量理论和传统的项目反应理论无法完成该种情形下试卷测量性能分析和考生作答表现分析.本文以MIRT理论为基础,使用CONQUEST软件为工具进行分析,可以获得试卷内部不同能力维度之间的相关以及考生不同维度的能力参数,为提升命题质量和改进教学提供了依据,表明MIRT具有很好的应用前景.由于MIRT理论的复杂性以至于目前分析软件的不足制约其进一步的深入应用,这是今后应该深入研究的问题.     

The effect of simultaneous versus serial responding on children's ability to coordinate two dimensions

Previous research by Lidster and Bremner (1999) on young children's ability to coordinate two dimensions has shown that performance on construction tasks (in which children have to give the correct coordinates for a point in space that is already known) is superior to performance on interpretation tasks (in which children are given a pair of coordinates and have to locate the correct point in space on the basis of these). The present study investigates the suggestion made by Lidster and Bremner that construction tasks may be easier due to the possibility that they can be solved by attending to only one dimension at a time. In this experiment 84 children between the ages of 3 and 6 years were given 16 trials of a construction task, which they were either asked to do by moving two pointers simultaneously or by moving the pointers sequentially. Overall there was no main effect of condition. However, some trials were affected by condition. These results are discussed in relation to Lidster and Bremner's suggestions and Huttenlocher, Newcombe, and Sandberg's (1994) claims regarding the development of spatial understanding.     

关于心理表象训练新程序的探讨

本论文对日本新近开发的心理表象训练程序(简称MITP)进行了概要的介绍,并在此基础上分析讨论了有关表象训练的理论问题,认为动觉表象、视觉表象和想象表象的有机结合运用是提高心理训练效果的良好途径,但如何提高练习者的表象机能水平(如表象的清晰准确性、鲜明生动性以及对表象的操作控制能力等)则是表象训练所面临的最大难题。     

The influence of extreme traumatization on body, mind and social relations

Extreme traumatization affects the individual's relation to others in several social and psychological ways. The post-traumatic experiences are characterized by helplessness, insecurity, anxiety, loss of basic trust, and fragmentation of perspectives on one's own life. Special considerations should be given to the destruction of the ability to regulate negative emotions (extreme fear, distress, anguish, anger, rage, shame) in relation to others and activate internal good and empathic object relations. Destruction of the capacity for symbolization of traumatic experience may threaten the mind with chaotic states against which the 'I' tries to defend itself and find a balanced psychic mise-en-scene. The authors emphasize three dimensions that the analyst should observe in his understanding of the traumatized mind and its conflicts. The proposed dimensions are called the body-other dimension, the subject-group dimension, and the subject-discourse dimension. All three dimensions have specific structural characteristics that are expressed in the analytic relation. Extreme trauma causes disturbances in each of these dimensions. The authors present clinical material from a traumatized refugee to illustrate the analytic work.     

Competencies Through the Eyes of Psychologists: A closer look at assessing competencies

Competencies have become a leading construct in human resource practices. However, empirical research on competencies has lagged behind resulting in a gap between practice and science. In this study, the focus was on the nature of competencies by examining the relationships of three competency dimensions with cognitive ability, personality and performance during assessment center exercises. Data of 932 applicants participating in a 1‐day selection procedure were used. Results showed that to assess the competency dimension Thinking psychologists focus on cognitive ability. To assess the competency dimension Feeling psychologists rely on performance during interview simulation exercises and on measures of personality. In assessing the dimension Power psychologists focus mainly on personality, although they also rely on cognitive ability and performance during interview simulation exercises.     

A framework for reproductive memory tasks

The present papers present a framework for reproductive memory tasks. It is proposed that the notion of predictability of presentation is of prime importance to performance in reproductive tasks and that this notion may be decomposed into three critical dimensions, viz. the item expectancy, the type-of-recall and recall expectancy dimensions. The first dimension refers to the manipulation of inter-item intervals; the second to backward, forward or free recall and the third to when recall is prompted. Moreover, a study was conducted, wherein these three dimension were combined. The main results demonstrated superior performance for prerecency items (the first four items) with fast inter-item intervals in the beginning of list presentation and also reliable effects for recency items (the last four items). Precueing and postcueing (recall expectancy) interacted with the item expectancy dimension and also with the type of recall expectancy dimension in systematic ways. The data obtained could not be accouted for a traditional encoding, storage, retrieval or rehearsal terms, whereas the predictability notion seemed more viable. Finally, implications for a general interactionistic theory were also discussed, where the interplay between cognitive skills and predictability characteristics of the task constitute the basic factors.     

Do chickens (Gallus gallus f. domestica) decompose visual figures?

To investigate whether learning to discriminate between visual compound stimuli depends on decomposing them into constituting features, hens were first trained to discriminate four features (red, green, horizontal, vertical) from two dimensions (colour, line orientation). After acquisition, hens were trained with compound stimuli made up from these dimensions in two ways: a separable (line on a coloured background) stimulus and an integral one (coloured line). This compound training included a reversal of reinforcement of only one of the two dimensions (half-reversal). After having achieved the compound stimulus discrimination, a second dimensional training identical to the first was performed. Finally, in the second compound training the other dimension was reversed. Two major results were found: (1) an interaction between the dimension reversed and the type of compound stimulus: in compound training with colour reversal, separable compound stimuli were discriminated worse than integral compounds and vice versa in compound training with line orientation reversed. (2) Performance in the second compound training was worse than in the first one. The first result points to a similar mode of processing for separable and integral compounds, whereas the second result shows that the whole stimulus is psychologically superior to its constituting features. Experiment 2 repeated experiment 1 using line orientation stimuli of reversed line and background brightness. Nevertheless, the results were similar to experiment 1. Results are discussed in the framework of a configural exemplar theory of discrimination that assumes the representation of the whole stimulus situation combined with transfer based on a measure of overall similarity.     

评价中心的构想效度和结构模型

采用多质多法和验证性因素分析的方法,对以无领导小组讨论、文件筐和人格测验构成的一个评价中心的构想效度和结构模型进行了研究。通过对136名被试在四个测评维度上的施测,其结果表明,在评价中心中会聚效度低于区分效度,影响评价中心测评结果的主要因素是测评方法而不是测评维度,从而得到了一个以测评方法为潜变量的评价中心结构模型。从该结构模型来看,评价中心之所以起作用是由于其多个测评方法(情景)的结果。表明测评情景对于构建评价中心有着至关重要的作用。     

Social creativity strikes back: improving motivated performance of low status group members by valuing ingroup dimensions

Motivation of stigmatized group members to perform on status‐relevant ‘outgroup’ dimensions can be impaired after ingroup failure. Three experiments examined whether social creativity by valuing ingroup dimensions (dimensions on which an ingroup outperforms an outgroup) can increase motivation and performance on outgroup dimensions. It was hypothesized that under high social identity threat, motivation on the outgroup dimension would benefit from valuing an ingroup dimension. Experiments 1 and 2 show that when social identity threat is increased, low status group members who personally value ingroup dimensions show higher motivation to perform on the outgroup dimension. Experiment 3 shows that the induction of high contextual value of both ingroup and outgroup dimensions improves low status group members' well‐being and motivated performance on the outgroup dimension. Copyright © 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Music and social identity: Stylistic identification as a response to musical style

One function of music is considered to be defining social identity for oneself and for others. This aspect of musical styles was investigated in the light of Social Identity Theory by examining how a college student population described fans of different musical styles. Respondents were questioned about their perception of listeners of six musical styles, two of which were indigenous to Turkey. Three basic dimensions that described the listeners of these styles emerged as the result of factor and scale reliability analyses. These dimensions were labelled the sophisticated, the sprightly, and the loser. Respondents associated these features with fans of different styles to different extents. The sprightly dimension characterized listeners of pop, rock, and rap best. The sophisticated dimension was most closely associated with listeners of classical and Turkish folk music. Listening to Arabesk, which is a style that is specific to Turkey, was most closely associated with the loser dimension. Consistent with the predictions of Social Identity Theory, evaluations by a person were affected by the attitude of that person towards a style in the cases of rock and Turkish folk music. Especially on the sophisticated dimension, respondents who liked rock or Turkish folk music rated the listeners of these styles closer to the ideal than respondents who disliked them. However, the self‐evaluations of these groups were similar. Furthermore, respondents typically described themselves as being closer to the ideal value on the three dimensions than the listeners of musical styles they liked. These results provide considerable support for the idea that liking a musical style shows characteristics of group membership according to Social Identity Theory.     

Factors affecting hypothesis testing in kindergarten children

In a previous experiment, the authors demonstrated that kindergarten and first-grade children can be trained to test hypotheses sequentially within the context of a discrimination learning task. The present experiment is concerned with delineating various aspects of the pretraining that contribute to the improved hypothesis-testing strategies of kindergarten children (mean CA = 71.6 months). It was found that children who have learned to anticipate an invariant cue-reward relation in such tasks manifest improved hypothesis-testing behavior, as well as improved discrimination performance, whereas children who have been trained to identify and name the various stimulus components of the discriminanda do not perform better than those without such training. It was also found that children who have had practice in shifting from an irrelevant to a relevant dimension perform better than those who have not had such experience. Moreover, children who have been given explicit instruction and training in the use of win-stay and lose-shift rules, as well as in the use of valid hypotheses, manifest strategies superior to those without such training. Finally, extensive pretraining over two sessions, administered on separate days, resulted in a marked reduction in the proportion of children who were dimensionally fixated while solving discrimination problems with two genuine dimensions.