Two studies examining the negative effect of self-efficacy on performance

Although hundreds of studies have found a positive relationship between self-efficacy and performance, several studies have found a negative relationship when the analysis is done across time (repeated measures) rather than across individuals. W. T. Powers (1991) predicted this negative relationship based on perceptual control theory. Here, 2 studies are presented to (a) confirm the causal role of self-efficacy and (b) substantiate the explanation. In Study 1, self-efficacy was manipulated for 43 of 87 undergraduates on an analytic game. The manipulation was negatively related to performance on the next trial. In Study 2, 104 undergraduates played the analytic game and reported self-efficacy between each game and confidence in the degree to which they had assessed previous feedback. As expected, self-efficacy led to overconfidence and hence increased the likelihood of committing logic errors during the game.     

Cancer during pregnancy: Two case studies

When a pregnant woman develops cancer, death and life are competing in her body and in her mind. In this article, two cases of pregnant cancer patients are described. The pregnant women were accompanied through their journey toward delivery and during the first months with their newborn. The process of being in intensive cancer treatment during pregnancy, of giving birth, and of building an early relationship with the infant is explored.     

Two studies of Piaget's theory of moral judgment

The relationship between conservation skills and subjective responsibility (SR) in moral judgment was examined in two studies. The Kohlberg ontogenetic priority hypothesis stating that conversation is a necessary but not sufficient condition of SR was pitted against the common structural basis hypothesis advanced by Damon. Piaget's notion of heteronomy as a combination of preoperational thought and unilateral respect was studied by using the behavioural independence tasks by Subbotsky as indicators of unilateral respect. A teaching experiment using Galperin's and Obukhova's method to induce conservation indicated significant transfer from conservation to SR. SR was found to be more susceptible to regression over a 3–month period than conservation. Conservers were less likely to regress on SR than nonconservers. Unilateral respect was related to objective responsibility but not to conservation. Taken together the data fail to support Kohlberg's ontogenetic priority hypothesis and only partially support the Piaget and Damon model of a common underlying structure. It is concluded that SR judgments largely reflect individual judgmental strategies and the effect of conservation on SR is intepreted in terms of increasing cross-situational consistency in the use of these strategies.     

Memory aids people use: Two interview studies

In two interview studies subjects were asked what memory aids they used and how often. In particular, the reported frequencies of use of external aids such as shopping lists and memos were compared with those of internal aids that have been investigated by psychologists, such as the method of loci. Subjects in the first study were 15 male and 15 female university students, and in the second, a group of 30 adult women, most of whom were housewives. In both studies the aids reported to be used most were external ones. However, it is pointed out that the most commonly used methods of remembering must be internal, although these are not usually considered to be aids. Some difficulties that arise in the assessment of memory in interview and questionnaire studies are discussed.     

Intergroup contact between professional groups: Two evaluation studies

We report two studies which evaluate practically-oriented programmes of interprofessional contact involving doctors and social workers. The evaluation is based on the ‘contact hypothesis’ in intergroup relations, and highlights four sets of dependent measures: background perceptions, ingroup and outgroup ratings, knowledge, and judgements about work with outgroup partners and experienced contact. Consistent with the contact hypothesis, both studies revealed an improvement in outgroup attitudes, evidence of mutual intergroup differentiation (acknowledged superiority of ingroup and outgroup on independent dimensions), and increased outgroup knowledge. Greater change in Study 2 is interpreted in terms of its longer duration, and the opportunity it provided for contact with multiple outgroup members, compared with a single outgroup partner in Study 1. These findings from field studies are consistent with results from published laboratory experiments.     

Brief psychodynamic psychotherapy in adolescent depression: Two case studies

In this paper the authors outline the basic principles of a manualized, brief psychodynamic approach that was evaluated as part of an outcome study within the National Health Service researching the effectiveness of two different forms of psychotherapy for major depression in childhood/adolescence: Focused Individual Psychodynamic Psychotherapy and Systems Integrative Family Therapy. As well as describing some of the difficulties encountered in short-term dynamic psychotherapy with adolescents, the authors present therapeutic work with two adolescents with major depressive disorder who were both seen as part of the research study. The authors depict some of the challenges and unavoidable difficulties which emerged during the therapy, arising from the needs of the research programme.     

Validity of the Sex-Role Egalitarianism Scale: Two replication studies

To enhance the construct validity of the Sex-Role Egalitarianism Scale (SRES), two replications of earlier validity studies were undertaken. Samples were from several college campuses and primarily Caucasian. In Study 1, multiple regression analyses confirmed a hypothesized curvilinear relationship between scores on the SRES and scores on the MacDonald Sex Role Survey, a measure of gender role ideology regarding women. In Study 2, the expectation that SRES would share a relatively small amount of total variance with both the Femininity/Expressiveness and Masculinity/Instrumentality trait subscales of the Personal Attributes Questionnaire was supported. Both sets of results are consistent with earlier validity research using different measures.Lynda King would like to express her appreciation to the Central Michigan University Research Professorship Award program for its support of the studies reported here. The authors would also like to thank the anonymous reviewers for their thoughtful guidance and suggestions. A previous version of this paper was presented at the annual meeting of the American Psychological Association, Washington, DC, August 1992.     

Two field studies on the effects of alcohol on eyewitness identification,confidence, and decision times

In two field studies, bar tenants (Ns = 86 and 190, respectively) were successively approached by confederates C1 and C2 on a night out. Confederate C3 then presented participants with a six‐person target‐absent or target‐present lineup concerning C1 or C2 (immediate test). Several days later, participants viewed a lineup regarding the confederate they had not attempted to identify earlier (C1/C2; delayed test). An immediate compared with a delayed, sober identification test did not increase the risk of a false identification decision. A blood alcohol concentration of 0.06–0.07% best discriminated accurate from inaccurate decisions. Choosers with a blood alcohol concentration ≤ 0.06% showed excellent calibration and little overconfidence, and their confidence was a strong indicator of accuracy (i.e., good resolution). Choosers with a higher intoxication level displayed poor calibration and strong overconfidence. Nonchoosers were generally poorly calibrated. Combined analyses showed a negative effect of intoxication on one's ability to discriminate the target from nontargets.     

Influence of leadership processes on group polarization

This research attempted to examine underlying processes of group polarization under leadership conditions. One hundred and twenty-two subjects formed in groups of four and five members answered to the Choice Dilemma Questionnaire first on an individual basis and then after group discussion. Experimental conditions were manipulated through different rules of group discussion and types of appointed leaders. It was found that leadership is associated both with group polarization and with group depolarization but whether the group polarizes or depolarizes is determined by the explicit or implicit group rules which act as a systemic decisional structure.     

Trying to be happier really can work: Two experimental studies

Does the explicit attempt to be happier facilitate or obstruct the actual experience of happiness? Two experiments investigated this question using listening to positive music as a happiness-inducing activity. Study 1 showed that participants assigned to try to boost their mood while listening to 12?min of music reported higher positive mood compared to participants who simply listened to music without attempting to alter mood. However, this effect was qualified by the predicted interaction: the music had to be positively valenced (i.e. Copland, not Stravinsky). In Study 2, participants who were instructed to intentionally try to become happier (vs. not trying) reported higher increases in subjective happiness after listening to positively valenced music during five separate lab visits over a two-week period. These studies demonstrate that listening to positive music may be an effective way to improve happiness, particularly when it is combined with an intention to become happier.     

Intrusive images and intrusive thoughts as different phenomena: Two experimental studies

According to the dual representation theory of PTSD, intrusive trauma images and intrusive verbal thoughts are produced by separate memory systems. In a previous article it was shown that after watching an aversive film, participants in non-movement conditions reported more intrusive images than participants in a free-to-move control condition (Hagenaars, Van Minnen, Holmes, Brewin, & Hoogduin, 2008). The present study investigates whether the experimental conditions of the Hagenaars et al. study had a different effect on intrusive thoughts than on intrusive images. Experiment 2 further investigated the image–thoughts distinction by manipulating stimulus valence (trauma film versus neutral film) and assessing the subsequent development of intrusive images and thoughts. In addition, both experiments studied the impact of peri-traumatic emotions on subsequent intrusive images and thoughts frequency across conditions. Results showed that experimental manipulations (non-movement and trauma film) caused higher levels of intrusive images relative to control conditions (free movement and neutral film) but they did not affect intrusive thoughts. Peri-traumatic anxiety and horror were associated with subsequent higher levels of intrusive images, but not intrusive thoughts. Correlations were inconclusive for anger and sadness. The results suggest intrusive images and thoughts can be manipulated independently and as such can be considered different phenomena.     

Efficacy of delayed auditory feedback for treating cluttering: Two case studies

Two clutterers were treated with similar preplanned delayed auditory feedback (DAF) procedures, using probe samples in which the DAF was not present to measure treatment efficacy. Whereas both clients met established fluency criteria during treatment, both clutterers had difficulty transferring gains to probe sessions—one more than the other. Differences in results of DAF treatment are discussed from the perspectives of differences in cluttering severity, coexisting disorders, and supplementary clinical techniques.