Stress and Health in First-Year Law Students: Women Fare Worse1

The social and psychological consequences of being a female law student may include greater stress and worse health than that experienced by male students. First-year law students at a major state university were surveyed about their physical and psychological health prior to, in the middle of, and at the end of the school year. They were also asked about specific sources of strain (e.g., grades, time pressure) at mid-year. Relative to men, women reported greater strain due to sexism, lack of free time, and lack of time to spend with one's spouse/partner. Women also displayed more depression and physical symptoms at the end of the year. Partial correlation analyses controlling for baseline health were used to show associations between mid-year strain and end-of-year emotional and physical health. Gender-role constraints may be more responsible for women's stress than law school per se.     

Anxiety sensitivity and major depression: examination of affective state dependence.

An emerging body of research suggests that anxiety sensitivity (AS), and particularly a facet of AS labelled fear of cognitive dyscontrol, is elevated in depressed individuals and is associated with severity of depressed mood. The current prospective study extended previous work by investigating the extent of affective state dependency in the AS-depression relationship in 51 patients who had major depressive episode (MDE) at baseline assessment (Time 1) and did not have MDE 1 year later at follow-up (Time 2). Despite considerable reduction in severity of depressed mood, scores on the Anxiety Sensitivity Index (M=27) remained elevated. Hierarchical regression analysis indicated that, after controlling for both Time 1 and Time 2 depression severity, Time 1 AS continued to predict residual Time 2 AS and increased prediction of variance from approximately 25% to 50%. Time 1 fear of cognitive dyscontrol AS continued to significantly predict Time 2 fear of cognitive dyscontrol AS when Time 2 fear of physical symptoms AS was statistically controlled. A subsample of recovered patients who displayed only minimal depression symptoms was compared to a matched sample of community controls. While the two groups did not significantly differ on level of depressed mood, the formerly depressed patients had significantly higher levels of AS. Implications for a proposed "depression sensitivity" are discussed.     

Revised Beck Depression Inventory scores of inner-city adolescents: pre- and postpartum

The revised Beck Depression Inventory was administered to 109 (69.0%) black, 33 (20.9%) Hispanic, and 16 (10.1%) white adolescents who were attending prenatal and postpartum clinics offered by two inner-city hospitals at 28 wk. of pregnancy, 5 wk. postpartum, and 6 mo. postpartum. The mean Beck scores significantly decreased between 28 wk. of pregnancy and 5 wk. postpartum but did not change between 5 wk. and 6 mo. postpartum. The levels of depression were comparable to those previously reported for nonpregnant adolescent females. Using a Beck cut-off score greater than 20 as indicative of depression, 134 (84.8%) were never depressed; 11 (7.0%) became depressed after delivery; 8 (5.1%) ceased being depressed after delivery; and 5 (3.1%) were depressed throughout.     

Maternal anxiety and depression and development of prematurely born infants in the first year of life

The purpose of this study was: (a) to assess and to compare anxiety and depression symptoms in mothers of preterm neonates during hospitalization in the Neonatal Intensive Care Unit, after discharge, and at the end of the infants' first year of life; and (b) to assess the child's development at 12 months of chronological corrected age (CCA). Thirty-six mothers, with no psychiatric antecedents assessed with the SCID-NP, were evaluated by STAI and BDI. The infants were assessed with Bayley-II Scales. There was a significant decrease in clinical symptoms of state-anxiety in mothers (p = .008), comparing the period during hospitalization and after discharge of the infants. Clinical symptoms of anxiety and depression were observed in 20% of the mothers at the end of the infants' first year of age. The majority of the infants exhibited normal development on Bayley-II at 12 months CCA; however, 25% of the infants displayed cognitive problems and 40% motor problems. The mothers' anxiety and depression symptoms decreased at the end of the first year of life of the pre-term infants and the children showed predominately normal development at this phase.     

Factors associated with depressed mood among adolescents in Northern Ireland

This paper presents data on the pattern of self‐reported depressed mood among a sample of 887 11–15 year‐old secondary school students living in Northern Ireland. In addition, the paper examines the association between depressed mood and stressful life events, family support and perceived control. Analysis of variance of mean depression scores did not reveal main or interaction effects for age (school year) or sex. However, a school year×sex interaction effect was found when the variation in depression scores due to family cohesiveness (or support) was partialled out in an ANCOVA. In years 1 and 2, males reported higher mean depression scores than females, whereas the pattern was reversed in years 3 and 4. The co‐variates of stressful life events and perceived control did not significantly affect the pattern of mean depression scores. This would tend to suggest that the sex difference in depression found consistently with adults may begin to emerge in middle adolescence; and that the nature and level of family relationships may influence the prevalence and pattern of adolescent depression. The study found a higher mean depression score and a larger proportion of ‘cases’ (27%) than has been recorded in studies of young adolescents living outside Northern Ireland. However, the extent to which higher levels of symptomatology may be related to the politically unsettled nature of Northern Irish society is unclear. Copyright © 1999 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

青少年早期抑郁和自伤的联合发展轨迹：人际因素的作用

通过对859名初中生历时3年的3次追踪测量, 考察了抑郁和自伤的独立与联合发展轨迹, 并对3种重要人际关系(亲子关系、同伴关系、师生关系)在二者联合发展中的作用进行检验。结果发现, 青少年早期抑郁和自伤分别呈现4条和3条异质性发展轨迹; 二者的联合发展轨迹包含“低抑郁-低自伤-稳定”、“低抑郁-低自伤-增长”、“中抑郁-中自伤-降低”三类; 父母心理控制和同伴接纳分别为青少年早期抑郁和自伤的风险与保护性因素。     

Predicting reading achievement in the first year of schooling: A comparison of readiness tests and instructional programs

Data from four reading-related tests, including a measure of knowledge about books and print conventions, and two demographic variables, obtained at the end of the first year of schooling, were used to predict a range of students' word and discourse reading achievement at the conclusion of that year. Students were enrolled in a reading program that emphasized either the subskills involved in breaking the reading code or the more holistic gaining of meaning from print. The results indicated that a measure of knowledge about books and print conventions is strongly related to end-of-year reading achievement, but that, over and above the other more traditional measures, it is a significant predictor of only one type of comprehension - that involving the inferential linking of two pieces of information separated in the text. Students in a subskills-emphasis program outperformed those in a meaning-emphasis program on tests of word knowledge but not of comprehension of discourse.     

Individual differences in non-clinical maternal depression impact infant affect and behavior during the still-face paradigm across the first year

Maternal depression can significantly impact mothers’ sensitivity to their infants’ needs as well as infants’ social and emotional development. The still-face paradigm (SFP) is widely used to assess infants’ understanding of the contingency between their own behavior and that of their caregivers, as well as infants’ ability to self-regulate arousal levels during sudden changes in maternal responsiveness. Infants of clinically depressed mothers display blunted levels of negative affect compared to infants of non-depressed mothers during the still-face (SF) phase. However, little is known about whether individual differences in elevated, non-clinical levels of maternal depression similarly affect mother-infant interactions. The current study examines the longitudinal effects of non-clinical maternal depression on infant and maternal behaviors during the SFP. Infants (N = 63) were assessed at 5 and 9 months and maternal depression was assessed at 5 months using the Beck Depression Inventory (BDI). Infants of mothers with elevated levels of depression displayed less negative engagement during the SF phase compared to infants of mothers with lower levels of depression. This effect was present at 5 months, but not at 9 months. Findings demonstrate that non-clinical levels of maternal depressive symptomatology can have a significant impact on infants’ affective regulation during the first half of the first year of life, but this does not necessarily have a long-lasting influence later in infancy. Interventions may want to target mothers with non-clinical depression to promote healthy infant social and emotional development.     

The relation of depression and anxiety to life‐stress and achievement in students

Objectives: An apparent increase in seriously disturbed students consulting student health services in the UK has led to concern that increasing financial difficulties and other outside pressures may affect student mental health and academic performance. The current research investigated whether student anxiety and depression increases after college entry, the extent to which adverse life experiences contribute to any increases, and the impact of adversity, anxiety and depression on exam performance. Method: 351 UK‐domiciled undergraduates completed questionnaires one month before university entry and mid‐course. The Hospital Anxiety and Depression Scale (HADS: Zigmond & Snaith, 1983) was administered at both time points and a modified List of Threatening Experiences (Brugha, Bebbington, Tennant, & Hurry, 1985) was administered mid‐course. Results: By mid‐course 9% of previously symptom‐free students became depressed and 20% became anxious at a clinically significant level. Of those previously anxious or depressed 36% had recovered. After adjusting for pre‐entry symptoms, financial difficulties made a significant independent contribution to depression and relationship difficulties independently predicted anxiety. Depression and financial difficulties mid‐course predicted a decrease in exam performance from first to second year. Conclusions: This is the first study to confirm empirically that financial and other difficulties can increase British students' levels of anxiety and depression and that financial difficulties and depression can affect academic performance. However, university life may also have a beneficial effect for some students with pre‐existing conditions. With widening participation in higher education, the results have important implications for educational and health policies.     

The severity of depression in cancer patients

The Hamilton Rating Scale was used for measuring the severity of symptoms of depression in cancer patients and healthy control subjects. The rating of patients took place at the end of clinical tests carried out for determining their diagnosis. Cancer patients had elevated scores for depressed mood, loss of work and interests, agitation, general somatic symptoms, hypo-chondriasis, and loss of weight. Total depression scores indicative of moderate depression (i.e. 9–18) were found in 41% of patients, whereas 24% had scores greater than 18, indicative of severe depression. The findings suggests that the majority of cancer patients may require appropriate psychological support.     

Fear of Success Imagery in the Print Media

The study aimed to assess levels of depressive symptoms and associated risk factors in a sample of students in Bogotá, Colombia. A convenient sample (N = 254) of students at the University Antonio Nariño, Bogotá was invited to complete an online survey that contained questions associated with common risk factors for depression and the Beck Depression Inventory (BDI-II). Chi-square was used to analyze comparisons between demographic and risk factors and severity of depression, and comparisons between those depressed and not depressed. Odds Ratios and their 95% confidence interval (95% CI) were computed through logistic regression model developed for each independent variable. The point-prevalence of current depressive symptoms was 36.2%; women 47.3% and men 21.3%. Risk factors associated with depression included being a woman, having a previous diagnosis, suicidal ideation and (or) intent, sleep problems, a recent loss, and a history of family depression and alcoholism. The study confirms the high incidence of depression and associated risk factors in students. The results demonstrate a need for prevention measures, early detection and early intervention.     

WOMEN WHO USE DOMESTIC VIOLENCE SHELTERS Changes in Depression Over Time

This study examined the levels of depression reported by women who had used a domestic violence shelter. Depressive symptoms were assessed three times: immediately after shelter exit, 10 weeks thereafter, and 6 months later. Whereas 83% of the women reported at least mild depression on the Center for Epidemiological Studies Depression (CES-D) scale upon shelter exit, only 58% were depressed 10 weeks later. This did not change at the 6–month follow-up. An ecological, longitudinal model was evaluated to predict battered women's depression 8/12 months postshelter exit. Results of hierarchical regression analyses suggested that, after controlling for previous levels of depression, the women's feelings of powerlessness, experience of abuse, and decreased social support contributed to their depression symptoms. The women's scores on these three variables (feelings of powerlessness, abuse, and social support) at 10 weeks postshelter exit and at 6-month follow-up predicted depression at 6 months. Thus, there were both predictive and concurrent effects for these constructs. Implications for clinical and community interventions are discussed.     

Recall of parental behavior by acute depressives, remitted depressives, and nondepressives

The goal of this study was to determine whether depressives' recall of parental behavior is a stable characteristic that persists even during asymptomatic periods. Recall of parental behavior was measured in a large community sample that was followed for one year. Four groups of subjects were formed according to their depression status: depressed, remitted depressed who had a history of depression but were not depressed during the study, cases who became depressed during the follow-up period, and never-depressed subjects. The results were generally consistent with the hypothesis that recalling one's parents as having been rejecting and unloving is not a stable personality characteristic of depression-prone persons. The currently depressed subjects differed as expected from the nondepressed subjects; however, the remitted depressed, regardless of how many past episodes of depression they had, did not differ from the nondepressed controls in their recall of parental behavior. The comparison of controls and cases resulted in an unexpected and difficult-to-interpret Sex X Group interaction. The implication of these findings for cognitive theories of depression are discussed.     

Gender differences in stress reactions: Women filling the gaps

Abstract

Competing hypotheses explaining gender differences in depression were compared in a one-year longitudinal study of parents of ill children in Israel. Women were found to have more depressed mood than men when their children were ill or well, but both men and women responded with increased depression when their child was ill. Women were more likely than men to be with an ill child at the hospital, even if employed, suggesting role overload. Women did not report fewer personal or social resources than men, indicating that poverty of resources could not explain sex differences on depression. Nor did women use their resources less effectively than did men. Women were less depressed the greater their intimacy with their spouse and friends, but at all levels of intimacy were more depressed than men. Men, in contrast, isolated themselves from social support at the time of their child's illness and it was argued that men might be avoiding stress contagion. The importance of examining differential responding of men and women to stressors that have common meaning for both sexes was discussed.     

Assessing aggressive and depressed children's social relations with classmates and friends: a matter of perspective

This study examined aggressive, depressed, and aggressive–depressed childrenr's peer relations from the children's own and from their peers' perspective. Participants were 819 fourth through sixth graders (50.2% girls) who were assessed twice during the same school year. Measures included children's aggression and depression, self-rated and peer-rated social acceptance, number of reciprocal friends, and self-rated and friend-rated friendship quality. Analyses revealed different patterns, depending on the perspective considered. Depression but not aggression was significantly related to difficulties with the peer group and with dyadic friends from the children's own perspective, whereas the opposite pattern was found according to the peers' view. The co-occurrence of aggression and depression entailed significant difficulties with peers regardless of perspective. The implications of these results for the links between children's aggression and depression and their interpersonal relationships are discussed.     

The impact of prenatal serotonin reuptake inhibitor (SRI) antidepressant exposure and maternal mood on mother–infant interactions at 3 months of age

Exposure to maternal depression increases risks for altered mother–infant interactions. Serotonin reuptake inhibitor (SRI) antidepressants are increasingly prescribed to manage antenatal maternal illness. The impact of SRIs on early mother–infant interactions was unknown. Three-month-old infants of 32 depressed mothers treated with SRI medications during pregnancy and 43 non-medicated mothers were studied. Using an established face-to-face mother–infant interaction paradigm, dyad interactions were studied with and without a toy. Videotaped sessions yielded 4 measures: maternal sensitivity, dyadic organization, infant readiness to interact, and maternal interruptive behaviors. Even with prenatal SRI treatment, depressed mothers interrupted their infants more during toy play. In the absence of prenatal SRI treatment, maternal postnatal depression adversely influenced infant behavior. Higher levels of maternal depression symptoms at 3 months predicted poorer infant readiness to interact during the toy session. Conversely, in the SRI-exposed group, higher prenatal depression scores predicted greater infant readiness to interact at 3 months. Increased infant readiness with SRI exposure suggests a “fetal programming effect” whereby prenatal maternal mood disturbances shaped a future response to a postnatal depressed maternal environment.     

Frequent Assessment of Negative Symptoms Does Not Induce Depressed Mood

Use of real-time data collection is rapidly expanding in the medical sciences and questions have been raised as to whether frequent ratings of disease symptoms could evoke depressed mood. This study investigated the effect of an intensive momentary assessment protocol on depressed mood. Community rheumatology patients (N = 105) were recruited to participate in a 30-day momentary assessment protocol of pain and fatigue. Patients were randomly signaled and completed approximately 6 ratings per day and at bedtime. Beck Depression Inventory-II scores were obtained prior to and at the completion of the protocol. Thirty-six percent of patients were classified initially as mild to severely depressed, and 31% percent at the end of the protocol. Depression scores were significantly lower following the protocol (p < .001). Whereas 10% of patients shifted into a more depressed category at the end of the protocol, 20% shifted into a less depressed category. These findings suggest frequent assessment of pain and fatigue may not induce depressed mood, and may in some instances be associated with a small reduction in depressed mood.     

A prospective investigation of the impact of attachment style on stress generation among clinically depressed individuals

The present study sought to determine if attachment style contributed to the generation of stressful life events among clinically depressed individuals during the course of treatment. Participants (N=68) were interviewed about life stressors experienced during a 3-month treatment protocol using a contextual approach (Life Events and Difficulties Schedule; [Brown, G. W., & Harris, T. O. (1978). Social origins of depression: A study of psychiatric disorder in women. New York: Free Press]). Results suggested interactive effects between severity of depression and attachment style on stress associated with future sociotropic and dependent life events. Mildly depressed individuals who reported a dismissing attachment style (higher levels of avoidant attachment and lower levels of anxious attachment) or preoccupied style (lower levels of avoidant attachment and higher levels of anxious attachment) experienced higher levels of stress associated with sociotropic events. Likewise, a dismissing attachment style predicted stress associated with dependent events among mildly depressed individuals. These effects were not present among our more severely depressed participants.     

Depressed patients with dysfunctional families: description and course of illness.

Sixty-eight depressed patients were subdivided according to their family's level of family functioning into functional and dysfunctional groups. Patients from dysfunctional families did not differ from those from functional families on measures of severity of depression, chronicity of depression, depression subtypes, other nonaffective psychiatric diagnoses, history of depression, or neuroendocrine functioning. Patients from dysfunctional families did have significantly higher levels of neuroticism. A 12-month follow-up of these patients indicated that depressed patients with dysfunctional families had a significantly poorer course of illness, as manifested by higher levels of depression, lower levels of overall adjustment, and a lower proportion of recovered patients. Thus, impaired family functioning appears to be an important prognostic factor in major depression.     

Behavioral activation and inhibition systems and the severity and course of depression

Theorists have proposed that depression is associated with abnormalities in the behavioral activation (BAS) and behavioral inhibition (BIS) systems. In particular, depressed individuals are hypothesized to exhibit deficient BAS and overactive BIS functioning. Self-reported levels of BAS and BIS were examined in 62 depressed participants and 27 nondepressed controls. Clinical functioning was assessed at intake and at 8-month follow-up. Relative to nondepressed controls, depressed participants reported lower BAS levels and higher BIS levels. Within the depressed group, lower BAS levels were associated with greater concurrent depression severity and predicted worse 8-month outcome. Levels of both BIS and BAS showed considerable stability over time and clinical state. Overall, results suggest that BAS dysregulation exacerbates the presentation and course of depressive illness.