群体关系对不同效价刻板印象信息传递的影响：系列再生法的证据

采用系列再生法探讨了群体关系对不同效价刻板印象信息传递的影响,共包括2个实验。实验1通过8条4人再生链传递信息,探讨了被试与靶子的群体关系对不同效价刻板印象信息传递的影响;实验2通过16条4人再生链传递信息,探讨了被试与靶子及听众的群体关系对不同效价刻板印象信息传递的影响。结果显示：个体更容易传递内群体的积极刻板印象信息和外群体的消极刻板印象信息,群体关系不同则被试对刻板印象信息的传递就不同。结论：不同效价的刻板印象信息其传递具有选择偏向,并且这种选择偏向会随着沟通者、靶子及听众间关系的变化而变化。     

医患沟通对医生刻板印象表达的影响

从沟通频次与刻板印象传递性质的关系入手,以住院患者和尚未成为住院患者的大学生为被试,采用系列再生范式,利用10条4人再生链,探讨了医患沟通频次对医生刻板印象表达的影响。结果显示,与医生沟通频次高的住院患者在再生链的第2个位置传递医生的积极信息高于消极信息,但是经过4人的传递,住院患者对医生刻板印象信息的传递在积极信息与消极信息没有差异。而与医生沟通频次低的大学生在再生链的后期表现出传递医生消极信息的倾向。该结果表明：沟通频次能够调节有关医生的消极刻板印象的传递—与医生沟通频次高的群体在传递医生的刻板印象信息时,在传递的早期具有积极的倾向性;但经过多人传递之后,在效价方面已经没有倾向性;与医生沟通频次低的群体倾向于传递医生刻板印象的消极信息。     

内群体刻板印象内容的维度补偿现象

为验证内群体的刻板印象内容具有补偿性的动态变化,研究采用系列再生法,将428名在校大学生分成3个实验组,每组分别阅读否定大学生群体的能力、社交性和道德的信息后,完成刻板印象内容的测量问卷。结果显示,单一维度的否定性信息改变内群体评价,具体表现为降低该维度评价,或者提升其他维度评价,或者二者同时发生。由此可见,内群体刻板印象内容存在“此高彼低”的补偿现象,并非保持稳定的偏好状态。     

关系亲密度影响刻板印象信息的口头传递（英文）

刻板印象信息常借助人际关系链得以沟通和传递。而沟通是一种社会情境活动,故人们对信息的沟通和传递依赖于沟通的社会背景,关系亲密度是其中的一个重要因素。关系亲密度指的是沟通者间相互依赖和了解的程度,以自我包含他人量表得分作为判断指标。本研究的目的即为扩展已有的刻板印象沟通研究,采用Ruscher等人提出的二人对话范式,通过两个实验探索关系亲密度如何影响人们在谈话过程中对刻板印象相关信息的沟通和传递。实验1中的关系亲密度由自然存在模式建构,共32对同性别被试参与;实验2中的关系亲密度由RCIT三阶段自我表露任务实验室诱发模式建构,共38对同性别被试参与。所用的沟通材料均为Klein等人编制的刻板印象信息故事,并使用自我包含他人量表检核关系亲密度。实验均为2×2×2三因素混合设计,其中,关系亲密度(陌生人和朋友)为被试间因素,刻板印象信息的一致性(刻板印象一致信息与刻板印象不一致信息)和故事情节的核心性(核心和次要)为被试内因素。在实验1中,三因素方差分析的结果显示,刻板印象信息的一致性主效应显著,核心性主效应显著,刻板印象信息的一致性和关系亲密度的交互作用显著。在陌生人关系条件下,被试传递的刻板印象一致信息显著多于不一致信息;而在朋友关系条件下,被试并没有显示出这种刻板印象一致性偏差,反而传递了稍多的刻板印象不一致信息。在实验2中,三因素方差分析的结果显示,刻板印象信息的一致性主效应边缘显著,核心性主效应显著,刻板印象信息的一致性和关系亲密度的交互作用显著。在陌生人关系条件下,被试传递的刻板印象一致信息显著多于不一致信息;而在朋友关系条件下,被试并没有显示出刻板印象一致性偏差,反而传递了稍多的刻板印象不一致信息。因此,可以认为人们倾向于向陌生人传递显著更多的刻板印象一致信息,而向朋友则未显示出这种特点。谈话中,关系亲密度影响刻板印象信息的沟通和传递。     

性别刻板印象的人际传播特点研究——基于社会认同理论或社会支配理论?

为探讨性别刻板印象的传播更符合社会认同理论还是社会支配理论的假设,采用单一复述故事法来研究不同性别的传播者、故事主人公和听众在传播一致性性别刻板印象信息和不一致性别刻板印象信息的过程中所表现出的特点。结果发现:男性更少地传播不利于维持阶层差异的不一致性刻板印象,女性更多地传播打破现有阶层划分的男性不一致刻板印象。这些传播特点都较为支持社会支配理论的假设。。     

The Effects of Relationship Closeness on the Communication of Stereotype-Relevant Information in Conversation

刻板印象信息常借助人际关系链得以沟通和传递。而沟通是一种社会情境活动,故人们对信息的沟通和传递依赖于沟通的社会背景,关系亲密度是其中的一个重要因素。关系亲密度指的是沟通者间相互依赖和了解的程度,以自我包含他人量表得分作为判断指标。本研究的目的即为扩展已有的刻板印象沟通研究,采用Ruscher等人提出的二人对话范式,通过两个实验探索关系亲密度如何影响人们在谈话过程中对刻板印象相关信息的沟通和传递。实验1中的关系亲密度由自然存在模式建构,共32对同性别被试参与;实验2中的关系亲密度由RCIT三阶段自我表露任务实验室诱发模式建构,共38对同性别被试参与。所用的沟通材料均为Klein 等 人编制的刻板印象信息故事,并使用自我包含他人量表检核关系亲密度。实验均为2×2×2三因素混合设计,其中,关系亲密度（陌生人和朋友）为被试间因素,刻板印象信息的一致性（SC一致信息与SI不一致信息）和故事情节的核心性（核心和次要）为被试内因素。在实验1中,三因素方差分析的结果显示,刻板印象信息的一致性主效应显著,核心性主效应显著,刻板印象信息的一致性和关系亲密度的交互作用显著。在陌生人关系条件下,被试传递的 SC 信息显著多于 SI 信息;而在朋友关系条件下,被试并没有显示出这种SC偏差,反而传递了稍多的SI信息。在实验2中,三因素方差分析的结果显示,刻板印象信息的一致性主效应边缘显著,核心性主效应显著,刻板印象信息的一致性和关系亲密度的交互作用显著。在陌生人关系条件下,被试传递的SC信息显著多于 SI 信息;而在朋友关系条件下,被试并没有显示出SC偏差,同样传递了稍多的SI信息。因此,可以认为人们倾向于向陌生人传递显著更多的刻板印象一致信息,而向朋友则未显示出这种特点。谈话中,关系亲密度影响刻板印象信息的沟通和传递。     

系列再生法:实验模拟文化动态(英文)

系列再生法是一种用来探讨文化动态中的社会心理过程之实验方法。所谓文化动态是指文化如何形成、维持,以及如何随着时间而变化。此方法特别有利于以下研究:文化讯息是如何透过社会网络被传播、什么类型的文化讯息较可能透过社会网络被传播,以及文化讯息由一个人传到另一个人的过程中,是如何转化的。本文概述了系列再生实验方法的优点及缺点,讨论此方法的理论架构,并举例展诉如何有系统地应用此法,做有关文化刻板印象的研究。最后,本文讨论未来的研究方向,如文化动态的潜在文化差异,以及文化动态与社会网络之间的互动过程。     

刻板印象信息沟通的默认策略

默认策略是指人们在不知道使用何种策略时默认使用的一种决策规则。研究通过2个实验探索传递更多的刻板印象一致信息而非刻板印象不一致信息是人们在刻板印象信息沟通中使用的默认策略。实验1书面沟通研究报告,实验2口头沟通虚构故事,结果均有力支持了研究假设。     

内隐刻板印象中反刻板印象信息的干预研究

该研究以性别职业刻板印象和自我-职业刻板印象的内隐联想测验（IAT）为实验材料和测量工具．通过提供反刻板印象信息为干预策略进行实验。研究表明：职业一性别刘板印象和职业一自我刻板印象层次不同,在总体上具有显著的相关;大学生在职业-性别刻板印象和职业一自我刻板印象上都存在极其显著的内隐效应,女大学生显示极强的内隐职业一自我刻板印象;在职业-自我刻板印象上,反刻板印象信息具有显著的干预作用,对男大学生的干预作用比对女大学生的大;在内隐水平上反刻板印象信息只能部分消除刻板印象;设计的[AT纸笔测验版本是可行的;在学校教育中渗透性别平等教育将是十分必要的和可行的。     

基于面孔知觉的刻板印象激活两阶段模型

从个体建构研究视角出发, 考察了基于面孔知觉的刻板印象激活过程。实验一比较了性别分类判断、启动范式以及同时呈现范式下刻板印象匹配性判断三者所用反应时的差异, 结果发现, 后者显著地大于前二者, 且等于前二者之和; 面孔倒置呈现使同时呈现范式下刻板印象匹配判断的反应时和错误率显著增大, 但其对启动范式中刻板印象匹配判断的反应时和错误率没有影响。实验二基于同时呈现范式, 通过不同程度的面孔变形来操纵性别类别提取的难度, 更精确地探讨了基于面孔知觉的社会类别信息提取过程对刻板印象激活的影响, 结果表明, 随着从面孔中提取类别信息难度的增加, 刻板印象激活所用的反应时也逐渐增大。研究结果证实了研究者所提出的刻板印象激活两阶段模型, 即基于面孔知觉的社会类别提取阶段和刻板印象信息激活阶段, 证实社会类别激活和刻板印象信息激活是两个分离的过程, 以社会类别信息提取为目的的面孔知觉对刻板印象的激活有显著影响。     

How are stereotypes maintained through communication? The influence of stereotype sharedness

Recent research has suggested that interpersonal communication may be an important source of stereotype maintenance. When communicated through a chain of people, stereotype-relevant information tends to become more stereotypical, thus confirming the stereotypes held by recipients of communication. However, the underlying mechanisms of this phenomenon have yet to be fully determined. This article examines how the socially shared nature of stereotypes interacts with communication processes to maintain stereotypes in communication chains. In 3 experiments, participants communicated a stereotype-relevant story through 4-person chains using the method of serial reproduction. Manipulations included the extent to which communicators believed their audience and other community members shared and endorsed their stereotypes, and also the extent to which they actually shared the stereotypes. The shared nature of stereotypes was found to be a strong contributor to rendering the story more stereotypical in communication. This is discussed in relation to the maintenance of stereotypes through communication.     

Towards a socially situated rumouring: Historical and critical perspectives of rumour transmission

Rumours are an ubiquitous feature of people's social life and one of the oldest topics in social psychology. Rumours, which tend to spread during crisis situations, allow people to mitigate unpleasant feelings and construct a meaning of the surrounding world. Rumour transmission has been associated with a number of specific individual (e.g., anxiety, personal involvement) and situational (e.g., ambiguity, uncertainty) characteristics and studied with the serial reproduction paradigm (Allport & Postman, 1947) in laboratory settings. The main criticism of rumour research has been its focus on primarily individual‐level analyses in an attempt to explain a social phenomenon. Furthermore, the classic serial reproduction paradigm tends to omit the essential properties of interpersonal interactions and communication processes. Despite the recent and rapidly growing trend of social network methods in social and behavioural sciences, rumour research could also include a finer analysis of individuals' social characteristics and the related complexity of real‐life communication processes. Therefore, the integration of a socially situated approach to rumour transmission might be especially relevant for rumour research and promising for the study of other social phenomena by extension.     

Reproduction of cultural values: a cross-cultural examination of stories people create and transmit

Narratives are one of the oldest and universal forms of communication in human societies. In the present research, the authors hypothesized that narratives play an important role in the reproduction of cultural values. To test this idea, Study 1 examined the contents of stories created by American and Japanese participants for their reflection of individualistic and collectivistic values, and Study 2 examined whether information consistent with cultural values would be more likely to be retained and passed onto others. The studies found that American participants created stories that reflected individualistic values and retained more individualistic information than collectivistic information when they transmitted a story to others. In contrast, Japanese participants created stories that reflected collectivistic values and retained more collectivistic information than individualistic information when they transmitted a story to others. These findings support the idea that narrative communication is an important part of cultural reproduction mechanism.     

Bartlett revisited: Direct comparison of repeated reproduction and serial reproduction techniques

Bartlett developed the procedures of repeated reproduction (the same person repeatedly recalling information) and serial reproduction (people transmitting information from one person to another). Our experiment directly compared recall accuracy across these two techniques, which has not previously been reported, using DRM word lists. Recall of the initial study list words remained constant across repeated reproductions but declined markedly across serial reproductions. In contrast, recall of associated words that were not originally studied (i.e. critical words) was steady across both conditions. Because more of the original list words were forgotten across each link of the serial reproduction chain, the proportion of critical items recalled (relative to list words) increased significantly as the list passed between people. Using output bound scoring, serial reproduction resulted in lower accuracy than repeated reproduction by the final recall trial. Our results are broadly consistent with Bartlett's (1932) informal observations: Serial reproduction produces greater forgetting of the original material than does repeated reproduction and also leads to greater distortion relative to the proportion of correct material recalled.     

Interaction analysis: meaningless in the face of relevance

Interaction analysis has become a standard tool for process-oriented research. Although now a researcher has a choice of instruments, the majority of these are based on the same concept of communication: the sender-receiver model. Communication is treated as a discrete and encoded process that progresses uniformly in time. We critically discuss these assumptions and the limits they put on communication research. It is asserted that instruments for interaction analysis based on the sender-receiver model restrict themselves to the more superficial levels of interaction and are unable to register the more significant events. Therefore they cannot account for a very essential feature of the communication process, namely the creation of meaning. Alternative options are discussed.     

The Annual Survey of Psychoanalysis,Volume I Edited by John Frosch,in collaboration with Jacob A. Arlow,Nathaniel Ross,and Sidney Tarachow

Interaction analysis has become a standard tool for process-oriented research. Although now a researcher has a choice of instruments, the majority of these are based on the same concept of communication: the sender–receiver model. Communication is treated as a discrete and encoded process that progresses uniformly in time. We critically discuss these assumptions and the limits they put on communication research. It is asserted that instruments for interaction analysis based on the sender–receiver model restrict themselves to the more superficial levels of interaction and are unable to register the more significant events. Therefore they cannot account for a very essential feature of the communication process, namely the creation of meaning. Alternative options are discussed.     

Effects of alternative modeling strategies on outcomes of interpersonal-skills training.

The effects of two alternative modeling strategies-using multiple scenarios and combining negative and positive model displays-on outcomes of a behavior modeling training program were explored. Trainees (N = 72) participated in a program on assertive communication structured to allow for a controlled experimental design that crossed scenario variability (one vs. multiple scenarios) with model display variability (positive model displays vs. positive and negative model displays). Outcomes assessed included trainee reactions, learning, and retention and behavioral measures of reproduction and generalization. The effects of multiple scenarios were negligible, but the positive and negative combination of model displays had a significant positive effect on trainee generalization and a significant negative effect on reproduction. Implications for future modeling research and practice are discussed.     

Anticipated Ongoing Interaction Versus Channel Effects on Relational Communication in Computer-Mediated Interaction

Previous research on the interpersonal tone of computer-mediated communication shows different effects using longitudinal computer-mediated groups than are found in research using one-shot groups, even before the developmental aspects associated with time can accrue. One factor distinguishing these approaches is the anticipation of future interaction experienced by longitudinal groups. This research reports an experiment assessing the relative effects of anticipated future interaction and different communication media (computer-mediated versus face-to-face communication) on the communication of relational intimacy and composure. Asynchronous and synchronous computer conferencing and face-to-face groups were examined. Results show that the assignment of long-term versus short-term partnerships has a larger impact on anticipated future interaction reported by computer-mediated, rather than face-to-face, partners. Evidence also shows that anticipation is a more potent predictor of several relational communication dimensions than is communication condition. Implications for theory and practice are identified.     

跨文化沟通能力对来华留学生抑郁的影响：身份认同差异的中介作用

为探讨来华留学生个人-表现认同差异、个人-关系认同差异在跨文化沟通能力与抑郁之间的中介作用,采用跨文化智力问卷、个人-表现认同差异问卷、个人-关系认同差异问卷、抑郁量表对301名来华留学生进行调查。结果发现：①相关分析表明跨文化沟通能力与个人-表现认同差异、抑郁呈显著负相关;个人-表现认同差异、个人-关系认同差异与抑郁两两呈显著正相关。②链式中介效应检验显示,跨文化沟通能力不能直接影响抑郁,但存在两条间接路径：个人-表现认同差异的单独中介以及个人-表现认同差异和个人-关系认同差异的链式中介。本研究表明,身份认同差异在跨文化沟通能力与来华留学生抑郁的关系中起重要的中介作用,研究结果能为来华留学生抑郁的预防和干预提供有益启示。     

Human Enhancement and Communication: On Meaning and Shared Understanding

Our technologies have enabled us to change both the world and our perceptions of the world, as well as to change ourselves and to find new ways to fulfil the human desire for improvement and for having new capacities. The debate around using technology for human enhancement has already raised many ethical concerns, however little research has been done in how human enhancement can affect human communication. The purpose of this paper is to explore whether some human enhancements could change our shared lifeworld so radically that human communication as we know it would not be possible any longer. After exploring the kinds of communication problems we are concerned with as well as mentioning some possible enhancement interventions that could bring about such problems, we will address some of the ethical implications that follow from these potential communication problems. We argue that because of the role that communication plays in human society, this issue deserves attention.