Cross-cultural Psychology

This article examines some of the limitations of social psychology and shows how they can be remedied by increased attention to cross-cultural studies. For example, many of the key constructs of the discipline, such as self, conformity, control, intelligence, and well being, are culture bound. The author proposes directions in theory development and methodology that will incorporate cultural syndromes in social psychological theories. Also, the author gives examples of methodologies that can consider simultaneously attributes of the participants (including their culture), attributes of the actors and targets of action (including their culture), attributes of the setting and context of the study, the prior relationships of the actor and target, and the attributes of the behaviors under examination.     

跨文化心理学中的压力和应对研究

压力和应对的研究是跨文化心理学研究的一个重要组成部分,其研究对于理解东西方的文化差异有着重要意义.文章从文化视野中的压力和应对的理论模型及集体主义和个体主义这对文化模式出发,探讨了在环境系统、个体系统、暂时条件、认知评价和应对技能等方面存在的文化差异,最后指出压力和应对的跨文化研究应注意的问题.     

从跨文化心理学到文化建构主义心理学——心理学中文化意识的衍变

心理学中的文化意识在跨文化心理学、文化心理学、文化建构主义心理学中经历了3次重大衍变。跨文化心理学视文化为心理规律的干扰因素,认为理论研究应力求“去文化”;文化心理学认为心理是文化的“投射”,寻求理论的“文化敏感”;文化建构主义心理学则认为心理与文化是相互灌注、相互建构的关系,因而更加关注“心理”、“意义”与“现实”的双向建构过程。本文详细分析了上述几种不同的文化意识形态的主要特点,并结合历史背景,对其各自的意义、问题做了简要讨论。     

Unity of Psychology: A Cross-cultural Point of View

To broadly communicate our view of the unity of psychology, the standpoint of recognized cross-cultural and diverse national psychologists is reviewed. Unity is analyzed internationally in terms of: (a) educational programme contents; (b) levels of training; (c) applications; (d) politics; (e) statutory objectives; and (f) theoretical models. Neither practical nor theoretical issues need disrupt this unity.     

Comparative research methodology: Cross-cultural studies

Cross-cultural research can make contributions to theory development by identifying groups of people who seem not to behave according to established theories and by increasing the range of independent variables available for study in any one culture. A major methodological orientation to such studies, developed over the last 10 years, is the emic-etic distinction. An emic analysis documents valid principles that describe behavior in any one culture, taking into account what the people themselves value as meaningful and important. The goal of an etic analysis is to make generalizations across cultures that take into account all human behavior. Examples of these approaches are given from studies on ingroup-outgroup relations in Greece and the United States; and studies on the need for achievement and its relation to the need for affiliation. A specific method to document emic and etic principles is presented which involves the development of core items to measure concerns in all cultures under study, and culture-specific items which are designed to measure concerns in one culture that may not be appropriate for all cultures under study. The techniques of back-translation and decentering are related to the emic-etic approach, as are the techniques developed by Triandis which involve the development of research instruments within each culture and the use of factor analysis. The most general approach, applicable to all comparative studies, is the plausible rival hypothesis analysis which forces the research to examine each and every potential explanation for any data set. The suggestion is made that the future of cross-cultural research will depend on its contribution to theory in general psychology, and methods (such as those presented here) will only be a means to the major goal of discovering important, central facts about human behavior.     

The relationship between rational thinking and intelligence in children

This study ws designed to evaluate the efficacy of a four-session REE curriculum and examine the relationship between intelligence and the endorsement of irrational beliefs in elementary school children. A twotailedt-test administered to examine difference between pre- and post-test scores onThe Idea Inventory was statistically significant,t (1,94)=5.90,p<.0001. The Pearson product-moment correlation coefficient between pre-test scores onThe Idea Inventory and theOtis-Lennon School Ability Test failed to reach significance (r=.15) suggesting higher intelligence did not predict greater endorsement of rational beliefs. The post-test scores using the same two instruments reached a correlation coefficient of r=.51 and was statistically significant at the .01 level. A higher percentage of children who scored below the mean on theOtis-Lennon improved from pre- to post-test than children who scored above the mean.     

Heuristic thinking and human intelligence: a commentary on Marewski,Gaissmaier and Gigerenzer

Marewski, Gaissmaier and Gigerenzer (2009) present a review of research on fast and frugal heuristics, arguing that complex problems are best solved by simple heuristics, rather than the application of knowledge and logical reasoning. We argue that the case for such heuristics is overrated. First, we point out that heuristics can often lead to biases as well as effective responding. Second, we show that the application of logical reasoning can be both necessary and relatively simple. Finally, we argue that the evidence for a logical reasoning system that co-exists with simpler heuristic forms of thinking is overwhelming. Not only is it implausible a priori that we would have evolved such a system that is of no use to us, but extensive evidence from the literature on dual processing in reasoning and judgement shows that many problems can only be solved when this form of reasoning is used to inhibit and override heuristic thinking.     

125 years of intelligence in the American Journal of Psychology

A survey is made of intelligence research in the 125 years of The American Journal of Psychology. There are some major articles of note on intelligence, especially Spearman's (1904a) article that discovered general cognitive ability (g). There are some themes within intelligence on which articles appeared over the years, such as processing speed, age, and group differences. Intelligence has not been a major theme of the journal, nor has a differential approach to psychology more generally. There are periods of time--especially the 1970s--during which almost no articles appeared on intelligence. The key articles and themes on intelligence differences are discussed in detail.     

Analogous activities: Tools for thinking comparatively in religious studies courses

This article discusses an experiential teaching method that uses secular activities that are simple, accessible, and analogous to religious practice in order to facilitate comparative religious study. These “analogous activities” – for example, social rituals, stillness, yoga, a social media fast, singing, nonviolent communication, and mindfulness meditation – provide a third point of reference that allows students to pivot between their understanding of religion and those of practitioners and scholars of religion. Experiential learning can be quite successful if deliberately sequenced to allow students to encounter a series of interpretive frameworks and structured with prompts and parameters that encourage reflection and critical analysis of their experience. In my course engaging in analogous activities not only impacted students' understanding of Asian religions, but also led them to question two previous assumptions: first, that religious beliefs were more important than religious practices, which is particularly problematic in regards to Asian religious traditions that place more emphasis on orthopraxy than orthodoxy, and second, that religion was something separate from one's everyday or lived reality.     

Auditory hallucinations and delusional thinking: A review and critique of outcome studies

This paper reviews the literature in which behavioral interventions were applied in an attempt to reduce hallucinatory and delusional verbalizations in psychiatric patients. Subject characteristics, dependent variables and treatment variations, as well as generalization of effects, are considered. It is concluded that even though operant procedures, such as extinction, aversive stimulation, and token reinforcement, have been successful in decreasing hallucinatory-delusional verbalizations, further research examining generalization is needed. Methodological issues influencing interpretation are discussed and suggestions for further research are offered.