Employing automatic approach and avoidance tendencies for the assessment of implicit personality self-concept: The implicit association procedure (IAP)

A new chronometric procedure, the Implicit Association Procedure (IAP), was adapted to assess the implicit personality self-concept of shyness. A sample of 300 participants completed a shyness-inducing role play and, before or after the role play, a shyness IAP, a shyness Implicit Association Test (IAT), and direct self-ratings. The experimental group was instructed to fake nonshyness. The control group did not receive this instruction. IAT and IAP were unaffected by position effects, and were less susceptible to faking than direct self-ratings with regard to mean levels and correlates. Under faking, correlations between direct and indirect measures decreased, and direct but not indirect measures showed higher correlations with social desirability and lower correlations with observed shyness. Despite many similarities, the true correlation between IAT and IAP was estimated only .61, indicating high method-specific variance in both procedures. The findings suggest that indirect measures are more robust against faking than traditional self-ratings but do not yet meet psychometric criteria for practical assessment purposes.     

Measuring implicit alcohol associations via the Internet: Validation of Web-based implicit association tests

Given the potential advantages of online assessment of implicit alcohol-related cognitive processes, the goal of this study was to empirically validate the online administration of the implicit association test (IAT). First, we examined whether an Internet-delivered IAT programmed in Flash can be as effectively used to assess implicit alcohol-related associations as equivalent IAT versions that are programmed in local lab software, such as Inquisit. Second, participants performed the IAT versions once in the controlled laboratory setting and once on their home computers via the Internet. Findings with the alcohol IAT versions were robust and did not vary systematically with respect to setting (home or lab) or assessment software (Flash or Inquisit). Importantly, there were also indications that IAT versions performed at home were more strongly related to explicit measures and drinking behavior than were lab-based IAT versions. Together, these findings demonstrate that the alcohol IAT can be validly administered online via participants’ home computers.     

The case for implicit category learning

This article evaluates the evidence regarding the claim that people can learn a novel category implicitly--that is, by an implicit memory system that is qualitatively different from an explicit system. The evidence that is considered is based on the prototype extraction task, in which participants are first exposed to a set of category exemplars under incidental learning instructions and are then required to categorize novel test items. Knowlton and Squire (1993) first reported that memory-impaired patients performed normally on the prototype extraction task while being impaired on a comparable recognition task. Several studies have replicated these results, but other articles have criticized the evidence for implicit category learning on both methodological and theoretical grounds. In this article, we consider five of these criticisms-for example, that the normal performance of the patients is due to intact working memory mechanisms (see, e.g., Palmeri & Flannery, 1999) or to the lesser cognitive demands of prototype extraction rather than recognition (e.g., Nosofsky & Zaki, 1998). For each of the five criticisms, we offer counterevidence that supports implicit category learning.     

Using the implicit association test across cultures: A case of implicit self-esteem in Japan and Canada

Previous research has suggested that implicit self-esteem might be universally positive. In the present study implicit self-esteem, as measured by the implicit association test (IAT), was found to be positive in both Japanese and Canadian participants. However, contrary to prior research, Japanese participants were found to have significantly lower implicit self-esteem than Canadians. Japanese participants also had lower scores on an exploratory measure of collective implicit self-esteem. In general, the results of the present study point to the complexities in the study of implicit self-esteem across cultures. Inconsistencies between the present and previous research might reflect divergent methodologies used in the IAT. The applicability of the IAT in a cross-cultural setting is discussed.     

The implicit association test as a general measure of similarity.

The Implicit Association Test (IAT) is widely used as a measure of semantic similarity (i.e., associations in semantic memory). The results of previous research and of a new study show that IAT effects can, however, also be based on other types of similarity between stimuli. We therefore put forward the hypothesis that the IAT provides a general measure of similarity. Given that similarity is highly dynamic and context-dependent, our view that the IAT measures similarity is compatible with existing evidence showing that IAT effects are highly malleable. We provide further evidence for this in a new study in which the outcome of an IAT depended on whether the perceptual or functional characteristics of the stimuli were made salient.     

The effect of midazolam on implicit memory tests

Substantial empirical evidence exists suggesting that there are distinct forms of explicit and implicit memory. However, methodological problems have hampered attempts to identify the nature of the information processing underlying these forms of memory. These problems include the contamination of performance on implicit memory tests by explicit memory processes, as well as a host of difficulties inherent in correlational approaches that involve amnesiac subjects. In this paper we attempt to explore whether midazolam, a benzodiazepine used in surgical anesthesia, might be useful for studying implicit memory. Specifically, we attempt to determine whether midazolam produces selective effects on explicit, as opposed to implicit, memory. We focus on midazolam because of prior studies demonstrating that benzodiazepines do not affect implicit memory and because its rapid pharmacokinetics ensure that sedative effects are minimized when testing occurs at relatively short retention intervals. The results of an experiment using free recall, fragment completion and perceptual identification tests suggest that midazolam diminishes memory in implicit and explicit memory tests, although the diminution is proportionally larger in explicit memory. These results constrain the inferences that may be drawn when midazolam is used to explore implicit memory.     

The single category implicit association test as a measure of implicit social cognition

The Single Category Implicit Association Test (SC-IAT) is a modification of the Implicit Association Test that measures the strength of evaluative associations with a single attitude object. Across 3 different attitude domains--soda brand preferences, self-esteem, and racial attitudes--the authors found evidence that the SC-IAT is internally consistent and makes unique contributions in the ability to understand implicit social cognition. In a 4th study, the authors investigated the susceptibility of the SC-IAT to faking or self-presentational concerns. Once participants with high error rates were removed, no significant self-presentation effect was observed. These results provide initial evidence for the reliability and validity of the SC-IAT as an individual difference measure of implicit social cognition.     

Temporal stability of the implicit association test-anxiety

The Implicit Association Test-Anxiety (IAT-Anxiety; Egloff & Schmukle, 2002) provides an indirect assessment of anxiety by measuring associations of self (vs. other) with anxiety-related (vs. calmness-related) words. In 3 studies (using 3 independent samples), we examined the temporal stability of the IAT-Anxiety. In Study 1, 65 participants responded twice to the IAT-Anxiety with a time lag of 1 week. The test-retest correlation was .58. In Study 2 (N = 39), we extended the time interval between test and retest to 1 month and this yielded a stability coefficient of .62. In Study 3 (N = 36), we examined the long-term stability (time lag: 1 year) of the IAT-Anxiety and this showed a correlation of .47. We discuss implications of these results for the assessment of personality dispositions with the IAT.     

Bridging the gap between explicit and implicit measurement of personality: The questionnaire-based implicit association test

This study presents the questionnaire-based implicit association test (qIAT), a method that resembles the assessment procedures of self-report scales and allows an implicit assessment of constructs measured by such instruments. The qIAT measures the speed of association between ordinary questionnaires’ items (i.e., short statements rather than single words) and true versus false self-related sentences. Participants completed self-report measures of all Big-Five domains and the qIAT that measured extraversion. The qIAT implicit extraversion score showed good levels of internal consistency and it correlated with explicit extraversion but not with other explicit scales, thus supporting the convergent and discriminant validity of this measure. It also predicted a criterion behavior, and this prediction was incremental to self-report assessment of the same set of items. The qIAT opens the door for the indirect assessment of numerous psychological phenomena measured by existing self-report scales.     

Consequential validity of the implicit association test: comment on Blanton and Jaccard (2006)

Numeric values of psychological measures often have an arbitrary character before research has grounded their meanings, thereby providing what S. J. Messick (1995) called consequential validity (part of which H. Blanton and J. Jaccard now identify as metric meaningfulness). Some measures are predisposed by their design to acquire meanings easily, an example being the sensitivity measure of signal detection theory. Others are less well prepared, illustrated by most self-report measures of self-esteem. Counter to Blanton and Jaccard's characterization, the Implicit Association Test (IAT) has properties that predispose it to acquire consequential validity rapidly. With the IAT as the subject of over 250 publications since 1998, there is now much evidence for its consequential validity. The IAT has attracted more scholarly criticism than have other measures designed for similar purposes. The authors speculate as to why the IAT is an attractive target.     

Measuring implicit attitudes of 4-year-olds: the preschool implicit association test

The Preschool Implicit Association Test (PSIAT) is an adaptation of an established social cognition measure (IAT) for use with preschool children. Two studies with 4-year-olds found that the PSIAT was effective in evaluating (a) attitudes toward commonly liked objects (flowers = good) and (b) gender attitudes (girl = good or boy = good). The gender attitude PSIAT was positively correlated with corresponding explicit attitude measures and also children’s actual sex. The new implicit and explicit measures of gender attitudes demonstrated discriminant validity; each predicted variance in children’s gendered play activities beyond that predicted by the other. Discussion describes potential uses of the PSIAT to investigate development of societally significant attitudes and stereotypes at younger ages than are achievable with currently available methods.     

The association between implicit theories of personality and the attributional process

The influence of implicit theories of personality (entity vs. incremental theorists; see Dweck, Chiu and Hong, 1995) on the stages of the Sequential Operations Model of attribution (Gilbert, Pelham, and Krull, 1988) was investigated. Two hundred eighty Norwegian participants were given a Norwegian translation of the implicit personality theories measure. Participants then read two essays, one advocating the pro-life position and the other advocating the pro-choice position on the abortion issue. The essay positions were ostensibly assigned rather than freely chosen by the author. After each essay, participants were asked to rate the essay position and the true attitude of the author. Entity and incremental theorists showed no differences in their ratings of the essay position; however, entity theorists made significantly stronger correspondent inferences about the author's attitude than did incremental theorists. These results support the contention that entity theorists engage in less attributional correction than incremental theorists.     

Decoding the implicit association test: Implications for criterion prediction

The implicit association test (IAT) is believed to measure implicit evaluations by assessing reaction times on two cognitive tasks, often termed “compatible” and “incompatible” tasks. A common rationale for studying the IAT is that it might improve our prediction and understanding of meaningful psychological criteria. To date, however, no clear psychometric theory has been advanced for this measure. We examine the theory, methods and analytic strategies surrounding the IAT in the context of criterion prediction to determine measurement and causal models a researcher embraces (knowingly or unknowingly) by using the test. Our analyses reveal that the IAT revolves around interpretation of two distinct relative constructs, one at the conceptual level and one at the observed level. We show that interest in relative implicit evaluations at the conceptual level imposes a causal model that is restrictive in form. We then examine measurement models of the IAT and show how computing a difference score at the observed level may lack empirical justification. These issues are highlighted in a study replicating an effect established in the literature (Study 1). We then introduce a new variant of the IAT and use it to evaluate the reasonableness of traditional IAT methods (Study 2).     

The Palm IAT: A portable version of the implicit association task

The Implicit Association Test (IAT) uses reaction times to measure implicit linkages among concepts or between concepts and attributes. The Palm IAT is a simplified version of the IAT that runs on Palm Pilot or Handspring Visor personal digital assistant devices. The Palm IAT is portable, provides precise measurement, and allows for efficient data collection inside or outside the laboratory. Three studies were conducted to assess its practical usefulness. Study 1 (N = 12) replicated a previous demonstration of more favorable implicit associations for flowers than for insects. Study 2 (N = 9) found individual differences in linking the self-concept to characteristics of agency and communion. Study 3 (N = 23) found individual differences in linking the self-concept to characteristics of boldness and friendliness. Reliability of the Palm IAT is similar to reliability of the original desktop computer version. Using the Palm IAT, one can study hard-to-reach populations in unusual settings.     

Assessing the impact of replication on implicit association test effect by means of the extended logistic model for the assessment of change

The present study consists of a longitudinal investigation in which implicit association measures were collected by means of the implicit association test (IAT), with the purpose of assessing the impact of replication on the test effect with the same participants. The extended logistic model for the assessment of change (ELMAC), a procedure that belongs to Rasch modeling, was applied. By means of the ELMAC application, the existence of latent traits characteristic of the impact on the IAT effect (due to replication through time) is shown; more precisely, the model time parameters show the decrement of the IAT effect through time, due to the decrease of the implicit preference in both conditions, compatible and incompatible, associated with sweet foods and salty foods. The results confirm that in the long run, the incompatible condition latency may approach the compatible condition latency, causing a significant attenuation of the IAT effect.     

Validity of the salience asymmetry interpretation of the implicit association test: comment on Rothermund and Wentura (2004)

The Implicit Association Test (IAT) requires responding to category contrasts such as young versus old, male versus female, and pleasant versus unpleasant. In introducing the IAT, A. G. Greenwald, D. E. McGhee, and J. L. K. Schwartz (1998) proposed that IAT measures reflect mental structures involving the nominal features of the IAT's categories (e.g., age, gender, or valence features). In contrast, K. Rothermund and D. Wentura proposed that IAT performance is dominated by salience asymmetries of the IAT's pairs of contrasted categories. To assess relative contributions of nominal feature contrasts versus salience asymmetries, the authors (a) briefly summarize the extensive evidence now available to support construct validity of the IAT as a measure based on nominal category features and (b) present 2 new experiments that yielded results problematic for the salience asymmetry interpretation.     

Retrieval-induced forgetting in implicit memory tests: The role of test awareness

Retrieval practice with particular items in memory may result in decreased recall of different, semantically related, items. This retrieval-induced forgetting effect has been demonstrated in studies using explicit memory tests. Anderson and Spellman (1995) have attributed retrieval-induced forgetting to inhibitory mechanisms. This hypothesis predicts similar effects in implicit memory tasks. In our first experiment, using Anderson and Spellman’s original paradigm, retrieval-induced forgetting was found using an explicit memory test with independent extralist retrieval cues. In our second experiment, using the same materials, retrieval-induced forgetting was also found using an implicit memory test with independent extralist retrieval cues, but only for participants who were aware of the relationship between the study and practice phase on the one hand, and the test phase of the experiment on the other. Thus, test awareness seems to mediate retrieval-induced forgetting in implicit memory tasks.     

内隐联想测验中他人重要性对自我心理表征的影响

联合采用联想匹配任务和内隐联想测验（IAT）任务，考察了自我—他人分类中的他人重要性对自我—高奖赏相似性的影响。研究将中性的几何图形与自我、不同重要性的他人（实验一为陌生人，实验二为朋友）建立联结，并将自我（暂时建立联结的图形）高奖赏联合任务与自我低奖赏联合任务下的反应差异（即IAT值）作为自我—高奖赏相似性的指标，结果表明：（1）联想匹配任务中自我和朋友以及自我和陌生人之间都存在显著的自我优势效应；（2）IAT任务中，自我和高奖赏只在他人为朋友的自我—他人分类判断时才具有相似性，而他人为陌生人时二者不具有相似性。这说明他人重要性改变了自我的心理表征。     

A paper-format group performance test for measuring the implicit association of target concepts

We developed a paper test utilizing a mechanism for measuring implicit association similar to that used in the Implicit Association Test (IAT; Greenwald, McGhee, & Schwartz, 1998). The target concepts were buried among positive and negative words on a piece of paper. Examinees marked the targets as "bad" or "good" in one task and conversely in the other, along with the evaluative words. Instead of reaction times, we counted the number of words marked in 20 sec for each task. This procedure allowed group administration. We calculated the implicit measure using the difference in the average number of words marked in the task pairs. The results of a test administered to 82 undergraduates with three different targets showed significant correlations (rs = .26-.35) with the results of IAT administered to the same participants. It also showed significant reliability (rs = .56-.71). We discuss the practical usability of the test with application studies conducted in various areas.