智慧技能的一般教学模型与实验验证

该文给出了智慧技能的一般教学模型 ,将智慧技能的教学分为两个主要阶段 :陈述性编码阶段、程序性编码阶段。为验证此模型在教学实践中的可行性 ,在课堂教学情境中进行了模拟实验。选取同一所学校初二年级的四个班学生共 2 2 2人 ,随机安排四个班分别接受“欧姆定律”四种教案的教学 :发现式新教案、发现式旧教案、接受式新教案、接受式旧教案 ,随后进行迁移能力测验 ,结果表明采用新教案组织教学 ,即按上述模型控制好影响智慧技能的一些关键因素 ,将更利于学生获取智慧技能。     

学科领域知识与数学学习的知识表征研究

根据领域知识的结构特点对初中数学学科知识作出改编和重组,形成数学学科领域知识单元进行教学实验,以215名普通初中二年级学生为被试,通过自编问卷和深度访谈考察学科领域知识对知识表征的影响,并探讨了知识表征与数学学业成绩之间的关系。研究发现:(1)学科领域知识可以显著提高学生数学陈述性知识表征全面性和总体水平;(2)学科领域知识可以显著提高学生的程序性知识表征全面性、自动化、组织性和总体水平;(3)认知结构三要素、陈述性知识表征及程序性知识表征与数学成绩显著相关;(4)学优生的陈述性知识表征准确性、总体水平和程序性知识表征组织性、总体水平显著高于中等生和学困生。     

过程分离程序下的自动化提取

按照信息加工的观点,记忆的学习阶段涉及两类不同的信息加工方式：控制性加工和自动化加工;与此相对应,记忆的提取过程可区分为有意识提取和自动化提取。研究者发现,自动化提取一般不受信息加工水平的影响,这被称为自动化提取的不变性。不过,在任务分离范式下的实验研究中会出现不变性受到破坏的情况。比如,学习阶段的概念编码有时会提高间接测验的成绩,不同的加工水平导致间接测验任务发生不同变化。同时,自动化加工也会影响直接测验任务的成绩。这种情况的出现可能与任务分离范式的实验假设有关。任务分离范式把直接测验任务和间接测验任务分别等同于有意识记忆和自动化记忆的纯净测量,但这一假设通常是不成立的。     

关于高校的实验与实践教学：基于教育心理学理论的思考

对于高校教育,运算学习方法多指实验、实践和学生科研活动,学生通过从事的实验、实践和科研活动来实现陈述性知识向程序性知识的转化,学习评价应着重考核学生对知识的理解和运用所学知识去解决问题的能力。本文阐述了突出实验／实践训练的高校教学设计的设想,并强调了应将各种教学实验类型有机地组合,给予学生先进、实用的实验技术的训练,以及在实验／实践教学中运用交互式的教学方法。     

编码方式对陌生字形记忆的影响

采用学习-再认范式,分别以韩字、英文假词为实验材料,考察了编码方式对陌生字形记忆的影响。在学习阶段,通过随机呈现整体和部分探测刺激,引导被试分别以整体编码和部分编码方式学习陌生字形,并在学习结束后一小时进行再认记忆测试。结果发现,无论以韩字还是以英文假词为材料,部分编码条件的记忆成绩均显著好于整体编码。该结果说明部分编码相比于整体编码能促进陌生字形记忆,并且这种优势效应具有跨文字系统的一致性。     

信息呈现方式与学习者的个性特征对多媒体环境下学习效果的影响

采用两个实验:实验一以陈述性知识为学习内容,实验二以程序性知识为学习内容,在这两种情况下,分别用组间设计探讨信息呈现方式对不同认知风格和空间能力的学习者在多媒体环境下学习效果的影响。结果表明:(1)认知风格对陈述性知识在多媒体环境下的学习效果产生影响,而选择的多媒体信息呈现方式和被试的空间能力则对其不产生影响;(2)对于程序性知识的保持,多媒体信息呈现方式和被试认知风格都会对学习效果产生影响,被试空间能力则不会产生影响,而且被试不同的认知风格在不同的多媒体信息呈现方式上会产生不同的影响;(3)对程序性知识的迁移,多媒体信息呈现方式、被试认知风格和空间能力都会对多媒体环境下的学习效果产生影响,而且被试不同的认知风格和空间能力在不同的多媒体信息呈现方式上都会产生不同的影响。     

回忆任务对合作抑制和错误修剪的调节——情绪效价和编码水平的影响

前人在项目回忆条件的合作记忆研究中记录到明显的合作抑制和错误修剪,背景提取条件的相关研究尤显不足;同时,情绪效价和编码水平对两类现象调节的研究尚未涉及。为此,本文在两个实验中采用经典合作记忆研究范式,以不同情绪效价的词汇为实验材料并以词汇在学习阶段的呈现颜色为背景展开研究。实验1和实验2分别在学习阶段采用了深编码和浅编码任务,回忆阶段则均含项目回忆(回忆已学词汇)和背景提取(回忆词汇在学习阶段的呈现颜色)两种任务。采用深编码条件的实验1的结果显示,项目回忆比背景提取条件的合作抑制更强、错误修剪更弱,回忆任务与词汇情绪效价交互影响合作抑制强度;采用浅编码条件的实验2则发现错误修剪在两种任务间的差异不显著。两实验的联合分析显示,回忆任务与编码水平交互影响合作抑制和错误修剪强度。上述结果表明:回忆任务对合作抑制和错误修剪的调节支持双重加工模型;回忆任务与情绪效价对合作抑制强度的交互影响支持权衡说,且与双重加工模型相吻合;回忆任务与编码水平交互影响合作抑制和错误修剪强度。     

嵌套范式下视空工作记忆对基于规则类别学习

基于COVIS模型与认知加工阶段假设,通过2个实验探讨嵌套范式下, 视空工作记忆对基于规则类别学习的影响。实验1采用类别学习中嵌套视空工作记忆的范式,结果发现视空工作记忆削弱基于规则类别学习成绩,与COVIS模型预测相一致。实验2则采用视空工作记忆中嵌套类别学习任务的范式,结果却发现视空工作记忆对基于规则类别学习的影响消失。实验结果表明嵌套范式下视空工作记忆的位置影响基于规则类别学习,初步验证了类别学习存在多个认知加工阶段的假设,视空工作记忆主要影响基于规则类别学习中规则的发现和检验阶段。     

不同编码对听写困难儿童字形记忆的促进效应

听写困难是一种发生率较高的儿童学习障碍现象。实验考察笔画语音编码和动作编码对听写困难儿童字形记忆水平的影响。结果发现, 笔画语音编码对听写困难儿童的字形记忆成绩没有明显影响, 但却明显促进了正常儿童的字形记忆成绩; 与之相对, 动作编码对正常儿童的字形记忆成绩没有明显影响, 但却明显促进了听写困难儿童的字形记忆成绩。上述现象, 既可能源于编码加工阶段, 也可能源于字形表征的提取阶段。     

问题表征与知识建构研究及其意义

人类智能有相互区别又联系的"三重"信息加工、知识建构与智慧生成.以该三重智能构想为基础在信息加工层面研究了问题的表征,提出关系-表征复杂性模型,分别用关系复杂性(包括水平的和等级的复杂性)解释任务难度,用表征复杂性(表征广度和深度)衡量表征能力.在知识获得层面,结合建构主义与认知心理学的技术和微观发生法等思路,可以探讨知识微观建构中可能发生的具体变化,如策略性知识在一般性和特殊性之间循环,程序性知识向概念性知识的转化等.     

表象编码对基于词表的错误记忆的影响

采用DRM范式,探讨不同表象编码时间和不同表象编码加工程度对基于词表的错误记忆的影响。在学习阶段,被试对呈现的词进行记忆。在测试阶段,被试在每个词列表学习结束后立即对该词列表进行自由回忆,分心任务结束后进行再认测试。实验结果发现：（1）被试在5秒编码条件下的错误记忆率显著低于3秒编码条件下的错误记忆率;（2）在5秒表象编码时间条件下,深加工组被试的错误记忆率显著低于浅加工组。这说明在较长的编码时间里,时间越长记住的细节信息越多,错误记忆率越低;加工程度越深,错误记忆率越低。     

表象编码对基于词表的错误记忆的影响

采用DRM范式,探讨不同表象编码时间和不同表象编码加工程度对基于词表的错误记忆的影响。在学习阶段,被试对呈现的词进行记忆。在测试阶段,被试在每个词列表学习结束后立即对该词列表进行自由回忆,分心任务结束后进行再认测试。实验结果发现：（1）被试在5秒编码条件下的错误记忆率显著低于3秒编码条件下的错误记忆率;（2）在5秒表象编码时间条件下,深加工组被试的错误记忆率显著低于浅加工组。这说明在较长的编码时间里,时间越长记住的细节信息越多,错误记忆率越低;加工程度越深,错误记忆率越低。     

不同任务情境中虚拟团队绩效过程模式

运用模拟实验,通过操纵任务类型和任务依存性,考察了不同任务情境中虚拟团队的各种绩效过程模式及其演化过程。研究发现：（1）三种绩效过程模式对团队任务绩效具有不同的作用,在整个过程中,团队成员都能够设置比较客观的目标;而方法模式只在第一和第三阶段表现出显著作用;信任模式在第一和第二阶段的显著作用,表现出后期受到学习效应的干扰。（2）在概念性任务中,任务依存性对团队任务绩效作用显著,而在行为性任务中,其作用不显著,而且,任务依存性对不同任务类型中的绩效过程模式具有不同的作用。     

Levels-of-processing effects in subject-performed tasks

In memory for subject-performed tasks (SPTs), subjects encode a list of simple action phrases (e.g., thumb through a book, knock at the door) by performing these actions during learning. In three experiments, we investigated the size of the levels-of-processing effects in SPTs as compared with those in standard verbal learning tasks (VTs). Subjects under SPT and VT conditions learned lists of action phrases in a surface or a conceptual orienting task. Under both encoding conditions, the subjects recalled fewer items with surface orienting tasks than with conceptual orienting tasks, but the levels-of-processing effects were strongly reduced in the SPT condition. In the SPT condition, items that were encoded in a surface orienting task were still substantially recalled. The items were recalled almost as well as the conceptually encoded items in the VT condition. The distinct reduction of the levels-of-processing effect is caused by the fact that, in SPT encoding even with a verbal surface orienting task, subjects process conceptual information in order to perform the denoted action. We attribute the small conceptual advantage, which remains with SPT despite the conceptual processing for performing, to the fact that items are not as well integrated into memory as they are when conceptual processing is focused on the action component, rather than on the semantic contexts. This lower integration reduces the accessibility of items in the verbal surface task, even with SPT encoding.     

Developmental differences in the allocation of processing capacity

Recently psychologists have formulated a comprehensive view of attention involving allocation of processing capacity. Although developmental changes in processing capacity have been proposed as one source of age differences in certain cognitive skills, there has been little systematic investigation of this hypothesis. In the present study, second and sixth graders and adults (8, 12, and 20 years of age, respectively) performed a letter-matching task (primary task) concurrently with an auditory detection task (secondary task). Changes in reaction time in the secondary task as a function of manipulations of the primary task were used to estimate capacity allocation to the primary task. Primary task variables included stage of processing (alerting, encoding, rehearsing, responding) and matching condition (physical-identity vs name-identity matching). Age differences in secondary task performance were found to be related to stage of processing but not to matching condition. Earlier stages of the letter match task (alerting, encoding) required somewhat more capacity allocation in younger subjects. Later stages (rehearsing, responding) made substantially higher demands on capacity in children. Capacity allocation may be an important cognitive variable mediating developmental differences in basic information processing skills, and may underlie age trends found in performance of certain complex cognitive tasks.     

Time pressure effects on information processing in overlapping tasks: evidence from the lateralized readiness potential

Information processing is impaired when two tasks are performed concurrently. The interference between the tasks is commonly attributed to structural bottlenecks or strategic scheduling of information processing. The present experiment investigated the effects of time pressure for the second of two responses on information processing in overlapping tasks by recording the lateralized readiness potential (LRP). Time pressure shortened the latency of the second response by diminishing the time devoted to motoric processing. In addition, task interference decreased under time pressure, which is probably due to the relatively early availability of the central bottleneck stage rather than to increased overlap of central stages. The LRP also provided direct evidence for an additional bottleneck following response selection, possibly due to supramodal refractoriness of response initiation.     

Type of learning task impacts performance and strategy selection in decision making

In order to be adaptive, cognition requires knowledge about the statistical structure of the environment. We show that decision performance and the selection between cue-based and exemplar-based inference mechanisms can depend critically on how this knowledge is acquired. Two types of learning tasks are distinguished: learning by comparison, by which the decision maker learns which of two objects has a higher criterion value, and direct criterion learning, by which the decision maker learns an object's criterion value directly. In three experiments, participants were trained either with learning by comparison or with direct criterion learning and subsequently tested with paired-comparison, classification, and estimation tasks. Experiments 1 and 2 showed that although providing less information, learning by comparison led to better generalization (at test), both when generalizing to new objects and when the task format at test differed from the task format during training. Moreover, learning by comparison enabled participants to provide rather accurate continuous estimates. Computational modeling suggests that the advantage of learning by comparison is due to differences in strategy selection: whereas direct criterion learning fosters the reliance on exemplar processing, learning by comparison fosters cue-based mechanisms. The pattern in decision performance reversed when the task environment was changed from a linear (Experiments 1 and 2) to a nonlinear structure (Experiment 3), where direct criterion learning led to better decisions. Our results demonstrate the critical impact of learning conditions for the subsequent selection of decision strategies and highlight the key role of comparison processes in cognition.