Motivation and engagement in diverse performance settings: Testing their generality across school,university/college,work, sport,music, and daily life

In the light of recent calls for more integrative approaches to theorizing and measurement in motivation and engagement research, the present study assesses the generality of key motivation and engagement constructs across seven performance domains: elementary school (N = 624), high school (N = 21,579), university/college (N = 420), work (N = 637), music (N = 224), sport (N = 204), and daily life (N = 249). Based on domain specific adaptations of the Motivation and Engagement Scale, multi-group confirmatory factor analyses (CFAs) tested invariance across the seven domains. First and higher order multi-group CFAs demonstrated broad invariance in factor loadings (in particular), factor correlations/variances, and uniquenesses across performance domains. Taken together, the present data support the hypothesized generality of key motivation and engagement constructs. Findings hold implications for pragmatic, statistical, substantive, and intervention considerations in motivation and engagement research and also for research into cognate constructs in personality psychology more generally.     

A multidimensional approach to skilled perception and performance in sport

Three experiments examined the relative importance of attributes determined largely by the efficiency of the visual/central nervous system versus cognitive domain‐specific skills, in the determination of expertise in soccer. In Experiment 1, expert and intermediate soccer players were assessed on various non‐specific abilities including: processing (simple reaction time, peripheral reaction time, visual correction time), optometric (static, dynamic and mesopic acuity), and perimetric parameters (horizontal and vertical peripheral range). In Experiment 2, domain‐specific variables were assessed including complex decision speed and accuracy, number of visual fixations, fixation duration, and fixation location in solving game problems. Stimuli were initially presented by slides (Experiment 2) and later by 16 mm film (Experiment 3). Eye movements were recorded and analysed. A stepwise discriminant analysis of both non‐specific abilities and soccer‐specific skills revealed an average squared canonical correlation=0.84, with the significant step variables all being domain‐specific skills. Copyright © 1999 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Psychological characteristics,sport engagement,and performance in alpine skiers

Previously, investigators have sought to clarify the role of psychological factors in the development of expertise across numerous sport domains; however, almost no empirical work exists on winter sport athletes. Using a retrospective design, we examined associations between psychological traits, engagement in practice-related activities, and performance among sub-elite level, youth alpine skiers. A total of 169 skiers (88 women) enrolled at professional development academies in the United States completed a battery of questionnaires assessing practice history profiles and performance milestones, as well as various psychological factors (e.g., mental toughness, grit, perfectionism). Performance was assessed using national ranking across both speed and technical disciplines. In addition to linear models and MANOVA/MANCOVA tests, linear mixed-effect regressions were utilized to assess relationships between psychological factors, practice hours, and ranking over time. Higher scores on perfectionistic strivings (personal standards) were associated with improved performance. Also, grit was associated with increased engagement in individual practice hours. Coach-led one-on-one practice hours were associated with increased perfectionistic concerns (e.g., parental pressure), while indirect exposure (e.g., attending events without competing) was associated with decreased mental toughness. Findings highlight potentially important associations between athletes’ dispositional characteristics, prolonged ski engagement, and performance trajectory.     

Epistemological development in adolescence and adulthood: a multidimensional framework

Theories of epistemological development are reviewed. A framework describing variations in adolescents' and adults' intuitive conceptions of knowledge is proposed. Within the proposed framework, naive epistemologies are conceptualized in terms of their assumptions concerning (a) the nature of the knowledge acquisition process, (b) the degree of correspondence between knowledge and reality, (c) the certainty of knowledge, (d) the commensurability of knowledge across individuals, (e) the degree to which knowledge forms or inheres in a coherent system of thought, (f) the nature of meaning, (g) the appropriate procedures for evaluating competing beliefs, (h) the nature and role of authorities as sources of knowledge and justification, and (i) the nature of reality. This framework is used to describe possible developmental changes in adolescents' and adults' concepts of knowledge and to suggest how future researchers might address core issues concerning epistemological development.     

Motivation in Masters sport: Achievement and social goals

ObjectiveThis study examined the collective relationships amongst achievement goals, social goals and motivational correlates in Masters sport.MethodThe participants were 373 (184 females; 189 males) Masters athletes from six sports. Ages ranged from 29 years to 77 years (mean=48 years). Cluster analysis was employed to identify ‘goal profiles’ of two achievement goals (task and ego) and three social goals (affiliation, recognition, status). MANOVA was employed to examine the goal profiles for differences on self-perceptions, affect, and motivation.ResultsFive goal profiles were identified and labeled as follows: Cluster 1 (Lo-Aff) low affiliation, moderate task, ego, status, and recognition; Cluster 2 (Lo-Val) low ego, status, and recognition, moderate task and affiliation; Cluster 3 (Hi-Social) high affiliation and status, moderate recognition and task, and low ego; Cluster 4 (Lo-Ach) low task and ego, moderate affiliation, status, and recognition; and Cluster 5 (Hi-Ach) high task, ego, and recognition, moderate affiliation and status. MANOVA revealed that Cluster 3 (Hi-Social) was highest on enjoyment and perceived belonging, while Clusters 3 and 5 (Hi-Ach) were highest on intrinsic motivation, commitment, and perceived ability. Clusters 1 (Lo-Aff) and 4 (Lo-Ach) had lower levels of enjoyment and commitment.ConclusionIn general, these Masters athletes enjoyed their participation, they were committed, they had high perceptions of ability and belonging, and they were predominantly intrinsically motivated. The implications of these motivational profiles for Masters athletes are discussed from both theoretical and applied perspectives.     

Understanding dropout and prolonged engagement in adolescent competitive sport

Objectives: The purpose of this study is to gain understanding of training patterns and roles of significant others (i.e. coaches, parents, peers, and siblings) in adolescent swimmers’ sport participation patterns. Design: The developmental model of sport participation [Côté, J., Baker, J., & Abernethy, B. (2003). From play to practice: A developmental framework for the acquisition of expertise in team sport. In J. Starkes, & K. A. Ericsson (Eds.), Recent advances in research on sport expertise (pp. 89–114). Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics; Côté, J., & Fraser-Thomas, J. (2007). Youth involvement in sport. In P. R. E. Crocker (Ed.), Introduction to sport psychology: A Canadian perspective (pp. 266–294). Toronto: Pearson Prentice Hall] was used as a framework.Method: Ten dropout and 10 engaged swimmers, matched on key demographic variables participated in a semi-structured qualitative interview.Results: Groups had many similar experiences (e.g. early training, supportive and unsupportive coaches, involved parents). However, only dropouts spoke of early peak performances, limited one-on-one coaching, pressuring parents during adolescence, lack of swimming peers during adolescence, and sibling rivalries. In contrast, only engaged athletes spoke of clubs’ developmental philosophies, coaches’ and parents’ open communication, school friends’ support, and siblings’ general positive influences.Conclusions: Findings highlight the importance of appropriately structured programs and the fragility of athletes’ relationships with significant others during the adolescent years. Implications for sport programmers, coaches, and parents are discussed.     

Corporate social responsibility and work engagement: testing a moderated mediation model

The purpose of this study is to examine the mediating role of collective self-esteem in the relationship between employees’ perceived corporate social responsibility (CSR) and their work engagement. We also explore the moderating role of employees’ concern for face in the linkage between their perceived CSR and collective self-esteem. A two-wave panel data from a final sample of 217 employees in six companies in Wuhan, China, completed the questionnaire survey. Employees’ perceived CSR has a direct and positive effect on their work engagement, which is partially mediated by their collective self-esteem. Furthermore, employees’ concern for face moderates the relationship between their perceived CSR and collective self-esteem. CSR has a stronger effect on collective self-esteem for employees who concern more for face than for those who concern less for face. Understanding the outcomes, the mediating mechanisms, as well as the boundary conditions of perceived CSR on work engagement, help firms to better formulate their CSR strategy. First, we introduce collective self-esteem as an important mediating mechanism in the relationship between CSR and employees’ work engagement. Second, we identify concern for face as an important limiting condition in the linkage between CSR and employees’ collective self-esteem. Finally, previous research investigating employees’ reactions to CSR has predominantly been conducted in the West. We conduct our study in the Chinese or Confucian context to provide some new and complementary insights.     

Examining a multidimensional model of student motivation and engagement using a construct validation approach

Background. This study seeks to examine a multidimensional model of student motivation and engagement using within‐ and between‐network construct validation approaches. Aims. The study tests the first‐ and higher‐order factor structure of the motivation and engagement wheel and its corresponding measurement tool, the Motivation and Engagement Scale – High School (MES‐HS; formerly the Student Motivation and Engagement Scale). Sample. The study draws upon data from 12,237 high school students from 38 Australian high schools. Methods. The hypothesized 11‐factor first‐order structure and the four‐factor higher‐order structure, their relationship with a set of between‐network measures (class participation, enjoyment of school, educational aspirations), factor invariance across gender and year‐level, and the effects of age and gender are examined using confirmatory factor analysis and structural equation modelling. Results. In terms of within‐network validity, (1) the data confirm that the 11‐factor and higher‐order factor models of motivation and engagement are good fitting and (2) multigroup tests showed invariance across gender and year levels. In terms of between‐network validity, (3) correlations with enjoyment of school, class participation and educational aspirations are in the hypothesized directions, and (4) girls reflect a more adaptive pattern of motivation and engagement, and year‐level findings broadly confirm hypotheses that middle high school students seem to reflect a less adaptive pattern of motivation and engagement. Conclusion. The first‐ and higher‐order structures hold direct implications for educational practice and directions for future motivation and engagement research.     

Passion and performance attainment in sport

ObjectivesTo test a performance-attainment model derived from the Dualistic Model of Passion [Vallerand et al. (2003). Les passions de l’âme: On obsessive and harmonious passion. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 85, 756–767] that posits that both harmonious and obsessive passions are positive predictors of deliberate practice that, in turn, is a positive predictor of performance.DesignA prospective design was used in the present study.Methods and resultsThe basic model was tested in two studies using structural equation modeling. Results from Study 1 with 184 high school basketball players indicated that both harmonious and obsessive passions were positive predictors of deliberate practice, which, in turn, was a positive predictor of objective performance. The results of Study 2, conducted with 67 synchronized swimming and water-polo athletes conceptually replicated those from Study 1. Furthermore, results differentially linked the two passions to achievement goals and subjective well-being (SWB). Specifically, harmonious passion was a positive predictor of mastery goal pursuit and SWB, whereas obsessive passion was a positive predictor of mastery, performance-approach, and performance-avoidance goal pursuit and was unrelated to SWB. Mastery goals were positive predictors of deliberate practice, which was a direct positive predictor of performance, whereas performance-avoidance goals were direct negative predictors of performance.ConclusionsIt appears that there are two paths to high-level performance attainment in sport, depending if harmonious or obsessive passion underlies sport engagement. While the path from harmonious passion is conducive to high levels of performance and living a happy life, that from obsessive passion is less reliably related to performance attainment and is unrelated to happiness.     

A theoretical framework for testing the additive difference model for dissimilarities data: Representing gambles as multidimensional stimuli

Implicit within the acceptance of most multidimensional scaling models as accurate representations of an individual's cognitive structure for a set of complex stimuli, is the acceptance of the more general Additive Difference Model (ADM). A theoretical framework for testing the ordinal properties of the ADM for dissimilarities data is presented and is illustrated for a set of three-outcome gambles. Paired comparison dissimilarity judgments were obtained for two sets of gambles. Judgments from one set were first analyzed using the ALSCAL individual differences scaling model. Based on four highly interpretable dimensions derived from this analysis, a predicted set of dimensions were obtained for each subject for the second set of gambles. The ordinal properties of the ADM necessary for interdimensional additivity and intradimensional subtractivity were then tested for each subject's second set of data via a new computer-based algorithm, ADDIMOD. The tests indicated that the ADM was rejected. Although violations of the axioms were significantly less than what would be expected by chance, for only one subject was the model clearly supported. It is argued that while multidimensional scaling models may be useful as data reduction techniques, they do not reflect the perceptual processes used by individuals to form judgments of similarity. Implications for further study of multidimensional scaling models are offered and discussed.     

Motivation in sport: an achievement goal perspective in young Spanish recreational athletes

This study examined the relationship between goal orientations, perceived motivational climate, enjoyment, satisfaction, perception of ability, and preference for tasks with different levels of difficulty in Spanish athletes. To measure these variables 323 recreational athletes completed the Spanish versions of the Perception of Success Questionnaire, Perception of Significant Others' Sport Success Criteria Questionnaire, Enjoyment/Boredom scale, and Satisfaction in Sport Questionnaire. To measure perception of ability, athletes responded to two items reflecting a general perception and a comparative perception of their ability. Finally, preference for a task of different difficulty was measured by two items reflecting preference for easy and for challenging tasks. Analysis showed that scores on a positive ego orientation and negative task orientation were associated with maladaptive motivational patterns in sport. Such patterns involve lower perceptual ability, preference for easy tasks, and less enjoyment and satisfaction in sport activities.     

Achievement goals and gender effects on multidimensional anxiety in national elite sport

ObjectivesThe present paper examined the roles of achievement orientation, perception of the motivational climate, and perceived ability on performance trait anxiety in a sample of national level elite athletes. Gender differences in these relationships were also examined.DesignCross-sectional.MethodsOne hundred and ninety national elite athletes (male, n=101 and female, n=89) from individual sport completed Norwegian measures of goal orientation, perceived motivational climate, perceived ability, and multidimensional performance anxiety.ResultsFemale and male national elite athletes were similar in achievement orientations and had similar perceptions of the motivational climate. Females reported higher levels of performance worry, concentration disruption and somatic anxiety than males. Orientations did not predict performance anxiety for either gender, however perceptions of a performance climate predicted performance worry for both genders, and concentration disruption for females. Perceived ability predicted less performance worry for females and males. Perceived ability did not moderate the effects of the perceived motivational climate on performance anxiety, and neither did the results meet the criteria for testing mediation.ConclusionsThe extant motivational climate has an effect on performance anxiety, and coaches would be well advised to consider this when working with national elite athletes.     

Selective attention and performance with a multidimensional visual display

Selective attention was studied in four experiments in which stimuli varied in both spatial location and visual form. In Experiment 1 the likely location and likely form of targets were both precued. An advantage was found for cued over uncued forms at both cued and uncued locations. In Experiments 2, 3, and 4, different forms tended to occur at different locations. Regardless of whether a location was cued or uncued, form selective effects were found in accordance with form probability for that location. It was not the case that selective attention simply favored certain locations or certain stimulus forms in preference to others. Rather, selective attention was sensitive to precise combinations of form and location. These results could not be reconciled with mental spotlight notions of spatial selectivity.