工作记忆成分在传递性推理中的作用

采用双任务(dual-task)实验范式,探讨工作记忆成分在五项系列问题(five-term task)这种传递性推理中的作用。被试为80名大学生,实验材料为32个空间和时间内容的传递性推理题目。结果发现:(1)空间位置和时间关系的推理结果都支持心理模型理论,而不支持形式规则理论。(2)在推理前提的加工阶段,中央执行系统和视空间模板发挥着关键作用,语音环路没有参与;而在结论的推理阶段,工作记忆的三个成分均发挥了作用。(3)传递性推理在工作记忆系统中采用视空间编码进行表征。     

视空间工作记忆和非言语流体智力在小学生数学问题解题中的作用

研究采用3(数学问题类型)×6(视空间工作记忆组别)×2(非言语流体智力水平)三因素混合实验设计,探讨了视空间工作记忆和非言语流体智力对小学生数学问题解题水平的影响。结果表明：（1）视空间工作记忆和非言语智力在小学生数学问题解题中起着重要作用;（2）不同的视空间工作记忆成分对不同类型的数学问题解决的影响是不同的,被动同时性视空间工作记忆容量是解决心算问题的显著预测变量,主动视空间工作记忆是几何应用题解决中的一个显著预测变量,被动序列视空间工作记忆是文字应用题解决中一个显著的预测变量;（3）在视空间工作记忆对数学问题解决水平的影响上,非言语流体智力起到了中介作用。     

语音回路和视空间模板对音位流畅性和语义流畅性的影响

采用双任务范式,通过四种次任务考察了工作记忆两个子系统－语音回路和视空间模板对音位流畅性和语义流畅性的影响。实验1表明,主动产生系列发音和被动聆听声音判断对音位流畅性影响更大,表明音位流畅性更依赖于语音回路。实验2表明,字形匹配和字形旋转判断对语义流畅性影响更大,表明语义流畅性更依赖于视空间模板。研究还表明,被试完成音位流畅性任务的策略更易受语言的特点影响,完成语义流畅性任务的策略更易受概念系统的特性影响     

方位和视空间工作记忆广度对空间情境模型更新的影响

该研究采用混合实验设计,以含有空间信息的语篇为实验材料,选取32名不同视空间工作记忆广度的大学生作为被试,考察方位和视空间工作记忆广度对空间情境模型更新的影响。研究发现:方位对空间情境模型更新的影响是显著的,视空间工作记忆广度对模型更新后的左右方位的判断有显著影响。研究验证了方位效应的稳定性,发现了视空间工作记忆广度对空间情境模型更新的影响。     

类比推理策略与工作记忆、抑制控制关系的年龄差异

本研究采用眼动技术探究不同年龄群体类比推理策略的使用差异及其与工作记忆、抑制控制的关系。结果表明：(1)儿童在类比过程中采用不成熟的“语义限制”策略的比例比成人更高；(2)言语工作记忆和反应抑制均能显著预测儿童的两种类比推理策略，此外，视空间工作记忆能显著预测儿童“语义限制”策略；但只有反应抑制可以显著预测成人的两种类比推理策略。本研究突破了以往行为研究只关注类比推理结果的局限性，利用眼动技术探明了儿童和成人完成类比推理的内在过程，并揭示了不同年龄群体类比推理策略的影响因素，为类比推理策略的相关研究提供了新的研究视角，并为提升儿童类比能力提供了理论依据。     

习得性空间联结的迁移依赖于语义工作记忆

采用练习迁移范式与双任务范式相结合的设计来探讨练习所习得的空间联结在工作记忆中如何表征。被试先进行不一致空间的刺激—反应映射练习任务, 五分钟后, 随机迁移到单任务(Simon任务)或者双任务(Simon任务+语义工作记忆负荷任务或空间工作记忆负荷任务)。结果发现：不一致的练习能使单任务出现反转的Simon效应, 但语义工作记忆负荷会使反转的Simon效应消失, 而空间工作记忆负荷却对反转的Simon效应没有影响。实验结果表明练习产生的空间联结依赖于语义工作记忆。     

视空工作记忆负载对真实场景搜索绩效的影响

采用视空工作记忆任务和真实场景搜索任务相结合的双任务范式, 结合眼动技术将搜索过程划分为起始阶段、扫描阶段和确认阶段, 探究视空工作记忆负载对真实场景搜索绩效的影响机制, 同时考查试次间搜索目标是否变化、目标模板的具体化程度以及搜索场景画面的视觉混乱度所起的调节作用。结果表明, 视空工作记忆负载会降低真实场景搜索的成绩, 在搜索过程中表现为视空负载条件下扫描阶段持续时间的延长、注视点数目的增加和空间负载条件下确认阶段持续时间的延长, 视空负载对搜索过程的影响与目标模板的具体化程度有关; 空间负载会降低真实场景搜索的效率, 且与搜索画面的视觉混乱度有关, 而客体负载则不会。由此可见, 视空工作记忆负载对真实场景搜索绩效的影响不同, 空间负载对搜索过程的影响比客体负载更长久, 二者均受到目标模板具体化程度的调节; 仅空间负载会降低真实场景的搜索效率, 且受到搜索场景画面视觉混乱度的调节。     

个体认知方式与材料复杂性对视空间工作记忆的影响

采用计算机呈现的Corsi积木点击任务,探讨了不同认知方式个体对材料的路径、结构和数量复杂性不同的视空间工作记忆的广度。研究结果表明：（1）场独立性认知方式是影响视空间工作记忆广度的一个重要的个别差异变量,在路径复杂或呈现的材料结构随机的条件下,场独立者的视空间工作记忆广度明显高于场依存者;（2）材料呈现的路径、数量是影响视空间记忆广度的重要因素,在路径简单或数量少的情况下被试的视空间记忆广度要明显得高     

工作记忆成分的年龄相关差异对算术策略运用的预测效应

采用选择/无选范式,借助工作记忆成套测验,在两位数乘法估算问题中探讨了工作记忆系统各成分对不同年龄段个体算术策略运用的预测效应。结果显示:(1)工作记忆的不同成分与年龄之间存在明显的相关。表现为,除视空模板成分外,其他各成分得分随着年龄增长而呈现上升趋势;(2)估算策略运用中,年龄与策略选择显著相关,表现为随着年龄增长,策略选择表现明显提高;(3)估算策略运用中,不同年龄个体的工作记忆不同成分和策略选择表现出不同的联系,中央执行均显示出显著的预测效应,语音环路和视空模板的预测效应均不显著。不同年龄个体的工作记忆不同成分对策略执行的预测效应均不显著。上述发现对于深刻理解工作记忆系统在算术认知策略运用中的作用机制具有重要理论含义。     

基于认知诊断的被试类比推理测验行为分析

本文在构建被试解题路径模型的基础上,应用多策略多成分潜在特质模型研究被试类比推理测验的行为,精细地分析了被试在类比推理过程中所使用的策略、分析了影响被试类比推理测验策略选择的因素、估计了被试在类比推理测验中所表现的各种能力.     

A modality congruency effect in verbal false memory

The involvement of working memory sub-systems in syllogistic reasoning problems was assessed by dual task methods. Effects of skill level and training on working memory involvement in syllogistic reasoning were examined. In Study 1, participants were pre-selected into groups of High and Low skill at syllogistic reasoning on the basis of a pencil-and-paper screening test. Six separate High and Low skill groups completed syllogistic reasoning tasks in control conditions and each group was also tested under one of the following six dual task conditions: articulatory suppression, unattended speech, verbal random generation, spatial random generation, tapping in a simple pattern, unattended pictures. The results indicated that the more skilled participants were generally following a high demand strategy, which loaded the central executive, phonological loop and imagery sub-systems, but that lower skill participants were generally following a less demanding strategy which did not load working memory components so heavily. In two Pilot Studies a training procedure was assessed and validated. In Study 2, participants were selected, on the basis of a screening test, as being unskilled at solving syllogisms but as performing above guessing level. These participants underwent the training regime validated in the Pilot Studies. Following training, separate groups of participants carried out syllogistic tests with and without one of the following four secondary tasks: articulatory suppression, unattended pictures, spatial random generation, and verbal random generation. The pattern of results indicated that training had induced high demand strategies (often logic-equivalent), which loaded the central executive and to a lesser extent the phonological loop.     

Trait anxiety,visuospatial processing,and working memory

This experiment assessed the components of Baddeley's working memory system impaired by anxiety during performance of the Corsi Blocks Test. The Corsi task was performed concurrently with different secondary tasks (i.e., articulatory suppression; counting backwards; spatial tapping; simple tapping). Results showed Corsi performance depended mainly on the central executive and visuospatial sketchpad components of working memory. Adverse effects of trait anxiety on the Corsi task were observed on the central executive but not on the phonological loop or the visuospatial sketchpad. These effects were not mediated by state anxiety. The findings indicate for the first time that trait anxiety impairs central executive functioning on a nonverbal task, and that anxiety does not impair functioning of the “slave” systems (i.e., phonological loop; visuospatial sketchpad). Theoretical implications of these findings are discussed.     

High-performers use the phonological loop less to process mental arithmetic during working memory tasks

This study investigated the effects of three working memory components—the central executive, phonological loop, and visuospatial sketchpad—on performance differences in complex mental arithmetic between individuals. Using the dual-task method, we examined how performance during two-digit addition was affected by load on the central executive (random tapping condition), phonological loop (articulatory suppression condition), and visuospatial sketchpad (spatial tapping condition) compared to that under no load (control condition) in high- and low-performers of complex mental arithmetic in Experiment 1. Low-performers showed an increase in errors under the random tapping and articulatory suppression conditions, whereas high-performers showed an increase of errors only under the random tapping condition. In Experiment 2, we conducted similar experiments on only the high-performers but used a shorter presentation time of each number. We found the same pattern for performing complex mental arithmetic as seen in Experiment 1. These results indicate that high-performers might reduce their dependence on the phonological loop, because the central executive enables them to choose a strategy in which they use less working memory capacity.     

Mental multiplication and working memory

This paper is concerned with the role of working memory resources in mental multiplication. In two experiments a dual-task paradigm was used. In the first experiment neutral tapping was contrasted to three modalityspecific secondary tasks: Irrelevant speech and articulatory suppression were used to disrupt the phonological loop and a visuo-spatial tapping was used to disrupt the visuo-spatial sketchpad. Multiplication sums needed to be solved mentally and results needed to be spoken aloud. Sums varied in difficulty (easy, e.g., 3 x 4 =, difficult, e.g., 8 x 17 =). Results from the first experiment revealed declines in performance on difficult sums under articulatory suppression but no interference effect for easy sums. To investigate the role of central executive processes, a second experiment extended the range of interference conditions to a central executive interference task (random letter generation). Now articulatory suppression and random generation caused a decrease of performance on difficult sums. In addition, performance on easy sums was negatively impacted by random letter generation as well. We infer that solving complex multiplication sums demands phonological loop and central executive processes, whereas retrieving numerical facts in solving simple multiplication sums requires only central executive processes. We found no evidence of modality-specific access to numerical facts stored in long-term memory.     

Field dependence-independence from a working memory perspective: a dual-task investigation of the Hidden Figures test

Field dependence-independence (FDI) is a construct intensively investigated within cognitive style research, but its cognitive underpinnings are not clearly specified. We propose that performance on FDI tasks primarily reflects the operations of the visuospatial and executive components of working memory. We tested this hypothesis in a dual-task experiment with a commonly used measure of FDI, the Hidden Figures Test. The results showed that performance on this test was impaired by concurrent performance of secondary tasks that primarily tap the visuospatial component (spatial tapping) and the executive component (2-back and random number generation), but was almost unaffected by other secondary tasks (simple tapping and articulatory suppression). Moreover, an analysis of secondary task performance ruled out the possibility of strategic trade-offs and revealed an intriguing dissociation for two different sets of "randomness" indices for the random number generation task. These results support the hypothesised mapping between FDI and working memory components and suggest that the dual-task paradigm can provide a useful way to bring underspecified constructs like FDI into closer alignment with theoretical ideas developed within cognitive psychology.     

Age,working memory,and the Tower of London task

The current study explores the role of three components of working memory in age differences in an executive task, the Tower of London (TOL). The TOL task is sensitive to frontal lobe damage, and is widely used to measure planning ability. Dual tasks were used to test the involvement of the phonological loop (articulatory suppression), visuospatial buffer (pattern tapping), and central executive (random generation) in age effects on the TOL. Older adults showed greater reliance than young on domain-specific verbal and spatial memory components in performing the TOL. In terms of executive function, qualitatively different interference patterns were seen in young and old participants. However, the validity of using random generation tasks to assess executive function in older populations can be questioned. For older participants, performing the TOL loads all components of working memory, whereas for the younger participants the TOL more specifically loads executive functioning.     

Working Memory Constraints on Linear Reasoning with Spatial and Temporal Contents

The present article reports two experiments testing the use of working memory components during reasoning with temporal and spatial relations in four-term series problems. In the first experiment four groups of subjects performed reasoning tasks with temporal and with spatial contents either without (control) or with a secondary task (articulatory suppression, visuospatial suppression or central executive suppression). The second experiment tested the secondary task effects in a within-subjects design either on problems with a spatial content or on problems with a temporal content, and within each content domain either under conditions of self-paced or of fixed presentation of the premises. Both experiments found effects of all three secondary tasks on reasoning accuracy. This supports the hypothesis that the subjects construct spatial representations of the premise information with the support of visuo-spatial resources of working memory. The second experiment also showed that during premise intake, only visuo-spatial and central executive secondary tasks had an effect. The implications of the data for the working memory requirements of reasoning and for theories of linear reasoning are discussed.     

Working memory and strategies in syllogistic-reasoning tasks

It has often been asserted that working-memory limitations are a major factor contributing to problem difficulty; for example, Johnson-Laird’s (1983) mental-models theory appeals to working memory limitations to explain the difficulty of syllogistic reasoning. However, few studies have directly explored working memory in problem solving in general or syllogistic reasoning in particular. This paper reports two studies. In the first, working-memory load was varied by presenting syllogistic tasks either verbally or visually (so that the premises were continuous1y avai1ab1e for inspection). A significant effect of memory load was obtained. In the second study, premises were presented visually for a subject-determined time. Dual-task methods were used to assess the role of working-memory components, as identified in Baddeley’s (1986) model. Syllogistic performance was disrupted by concurrent random-number generation but not by concurrent articulatory suppression or by concurrent tapping in a preset pattern. Furthermore, the concurrent syllogism task interfered with random generation and to a lesser extent with articulatory suppression, but not with tapping. We conclude that while the central-executive component of working memory played a major role in the syllogistic-task performance reported here, the articulatory loop had a lesser role, and the visuospatial scratch pad was not involved.     

Working memory in chess

Three experiments investigated the role of working memory in various aspects of thinking in chess. Experiment 1 examined the immediate memory for briefly presented chess positions from master games in players from a wide range of abilities, following the imposition of various secondary tasks designed to block separate components of working memory. Suppression of the articulatory loop (by preventing subvocal rehearsal) had no effect on measures of recall, whereas blocking the visuospatial sketchpad (by manipulation of a keypad) and blocking the central executive (by random letter generation) had equivalent disruptive effects, in comparison with a control condition. Experiment 2 investigated the effects of similar secondary tasks on the solution (i.e., move selection) of tactical chess positions, and a similar pattern was found, except that blocking the central executive was much more disruptive than in Experiment 1. Experiment 3 compared performance on two types of primary task, one concerned with solving chess positions as in Experiment 2, and the other a sentence-rearrangement task. The secondary tasks in each case were both designed to block the central executive, but one was verbal (vocal generation of random numbers), while the other was spatial in nature (random generation of keypresses). Performance of the spatial secondary task was affected to a greater extent by the chess primary task than by the verbal primary task, whereas there were no differential effects on these secondary tasks by the verbal primary task. In none of the three experiments were there any differential effects between weak and strong players. These results are interpreted in the context of the workingmemory model and previous theories of the nature of cognition in chess.     

Working memory components and imagery instructions in the elaboration of a spatial mental model

The paper investigates the involvement of verbal and visuo-spatial working memory during the processing of spatial texts via a dual-task paradigm. Subjects were presented with three texts describing locations from a route perspective, and had either to imagine themselves moving along a route in surroundings or to rehearse verbal information. Concurrently they had to perform a spatial tapping task, an articulatory task, or no secondary task. Performance on a verification test used to assess the product of comprehension showed that the concurrent tapping task impaired performance in the imagery instructions group but not in the repetition instructions group, and caused the beneficial effect of imagery instructions to vanish. This result was not observed with the articulatory task, where interference effects were similar in both instructions groups. Performance on the concurrent tasks confirmed the pattern obtained with the verification test. In addition, results seem partly dependent on the capacity of spatial working memory as measured by the Corsi Blocks Test. We argue that these results clarify the processes of the construction of a spatial mental model, and confirm that the visuo-spatial working memory is involved in mental imagery.