Gender Differences in Physical Education Textbooks in Spain: A Content Analysis of Photographs

The aim of this paper is to show how gender differences are portrayed in images featured in Physical Education textbooks for secondary schools in Spain published between 2000 and 2006. The sample was composed of 2,724 images published in 36 textbooks by 10 Spanish publishing houses. A content analysis was carried out through the elaboration of an ad hoc coding scheme. The development of the coding scheme followed: two trial tests, two consultations with experts, and triangulation with three observers. The variables of the study were: gender, type of physical activity, field of practice, space and level. The findings showed a noticeable imbalance between male and female representation in which the male model is clearly predominant. In addition, these images portray males and females in stereotypical roles and depict certain activities or sports as more appropriate for one gender or the other. These findings further highlight the need to increase awareness regarding the image content in textbooks and the necessity to work in order to overcome traditional gender stereotypes connected with physical education and sport.     

Gender and Grade Differences in Latent Ability Variables

Scores in ability tests administered to students in grades 4–9 were simultaneously factor-analyzed within twelve gender by grade groups. Gender and grade differences in means and variances were studied for five latent ability factors according to a hierarchical model and compared with means and variances in the observed scores.
Girls had higher means than boys in a general ability factor (G), in a residual general speed factor (Gs') and in a residual factor of numerical facility (N'). Boys were higher in a residual vocabulary factor (V') and most of all in a residual spatial visualization factor (Vz'). Boys had larger variances than girls in N' and Gs'. In general the differences in means and variances were in the same direction for the closest corresponding observed scores, but some striking discrepancies between latent and observed scores were found. As a rule, the discrepancies were due to the complexity of the tests where one factor could compensate for another.
In the discussion it was pointed out that some of the differences found were likely to have changed between the testing in the late 1950s and the present. Nevertheless the demonstration of the divergence between analyses of latent vs. observed scores remains valid.     

Body Image: Gender,Ethnic, and Age Differences

Abstract

Using figure drawings (E. Fallon & P. Rozin, 1985), 120 male and female U.S. college students–African American, Hispanic, and Caucasian–indicated their current and ideal figures, the figures that they considered most attractive to the opposite sex, and the opposite-sex figures most attractive to themselves. Dissatisfaction with body shape was greater among the women regardless of ethnicity. Both the men and the women misjudged which shapes the opposite sex would rate as most attractive: The women guessed that the men preferred shapes thinner than those that they actually reported. The African American women had the most accurate perceptions of what the men found attractive, whereas the Caucasian women had the most distorted views. The men guessed that the women preferred shapes bulkier than those that they actually indicated. These findings may be relevant to the lower incidence of eating disorders among African American women and the higher incidence of such disorders among Caucasian women.     

An Analysis of Gender and Ethnic Differences in College Students' Commitment to Work

Women attending college exhibited significantly higher levels of commitment to work than their male counterparts did. Ethnic differences, however, were not revealed in this investigation.     

Gender Differences in the Accuracy of Grade Expectancies and Evaluations

Participants were 131 (69 women, 62 men)students in Introductory Psychology, Social Psychology,and Computer Science courses. Eighty-six percent of thesample was Caucasian. The goals of this study were to assess (a) how accurate students'preexamination expectancies and postexamination gradeevaluations are and whether gender differences in theaccuracy of expectancies and grade evaluations onexaminations exist, (b) whether expected grades predictpostexamination grade evaluations even with actualgrades controlled (self-consistency effect), and (c)whether students' grade expectations and evaluationsbecome more accurate with experience. Throughout thecourse of a semester, students estimated their gradesfor each of their examinations. Students overestimatedtheir grades at all points in the semester, although women in Introductory Psychology overestimatedtheir grades less than men did. Students' expectedgrades were a better predictor of their postexaminationgrade evaluations than were their actual grades. For Introductory Psychology students,expectancies and grade evaluations became more accurateas the semester progressed. The importance of accurateself-perceptions regarding academic performance isdiscussed.     

Gender and Ethnic Differences in Stress Reduction, Reactivity, and Recovery

To assess whether gender and ethnic subgroups differentially self-reported stress reduction, reactivity, and recovery, 313 undergraduate African American and Caucasian students at an urban northeastern American university were randomly assigned to one of three relaxation conditions which they utilized before and after being exposed to a visual stressor. Self-report measures of state anxiety were taken before and after each activity. Females reported the most stress reduction, reactivity, and recovery. Caucasian females reported unique reactions relative to other groups at all phases. African American males reported the least amount of cognitive reactivity. Results from this study suggest that ethnicity should be evaluated with gender differences, affective reactions need to be better understood, and interventions for stress may need to be specifically tailored.     

Gender,Racial, and Ethnic Differences in Job Context and Work-Activity Preferences

This study explores the effect of social norms in a military situation at the Royal Norwegian Air Force Academy. During the wintertime, standing on a wharf, officers were given the offer of jumping into the ocean or not. In the experiment (n?=?75), having an antijump norm induced by a confederate, the jump rate decreased from 76% to 51%. One implication of these findings is that the salience of one norm is a deciding factor when individuals have several conflicting norms.     

Gender and Ethnic Differences in Obesity-Related Behaviors and Attitudes In a College Sample

This study looked at gender and Black/White differences for a number of variables related to attitudes toward obesity in a sample of 650 college students. The overall stereotypes of overweight persons were both negative and unrelated to subjects' own degree of obesity, although individuals reported that their personal views were less negative than those of others.
Women indicated greater concern with obesity than men in several ways, and the societal stereotype of an overweight woman was seen as more negative than that of an overweight man. Men were more concerned about a date's weight than women, and White women's weight (unlike that of other subgroups) was negatively related to their likelihood and frequency of dating. Although Blacks, particularly Black females, were heavier than Whites, they were more satisfied with their body shape. Black males were less likely than White males to have refused to date someone because of her weight, and Blacks personally considered overweight women to be more attractive, sexier, less ugly, and less sloppy than did Whites. The findings suggest that both gender and ethnicity should be considered when discussing people's attitudes towards obesity and the consequences of such attitudes.     

Changes with Age in Subjective Well-Being Through the Adolescent Years: Differences by Gender

A one-year follow up study was conducted on a sample of 940 Spanish adolescents aged mostly from 10 to 15 in order to explore the extent to which their subjective well-being (SWB) changes from one year to the next, and whether these changes are the same for both genders regardless of the instrument used to measure SWB. Participants responded to the same four SWB scales twice, with an interval of a year in between. A decrease in the levels of SWB is identified from the years 11–12 onwards, the decrease in girls being more marked. Multiple-item, domain-based scales (Brief Multidimensional Student’s Life Satisfaction Scale and Personal Well-Being Index) are more sensitive than single-item scales (Overall Life Satisfaction and Happiness Taking into Account Overall Life) in detecting this decrease. Implications for the study of SWB are discussed from a developmental perspective.     

Gender Differences in Loneliness Across the Lifespan: A Meta‐Analysis

Different theoretical contentions on gender differences in loneliness exist, often including the emergence of gender differences in particular developmental periods. To explain those ideas, the current meta‐analysis synthesizes the available evidence on gender differences in loneliness across the lifespan. Three‐level meta‐analyses were conducted with 751 effect sizes, covering 399,798 individuals (45.56% males). Results showed a close‐to‐zero overall effect (g = 0.07). Most examined moderators were non‐significant, except for age, the scope of the sampling area, and year of publication. Most importantly, all effects were small, suggesting that across the lifespan mean levels of loneliness are similar for males and females.     

Gender Differences in Delay of Gratification: A Meta-Analysis

A series of meta-analyses were conducted to test Bjorklund and Kipp's hypothesis that due to selection pressures operating during evolution, women and girls are better able than men and boys to delay gratification (Bjorklund & Kipp, 1996). A total of 38 effect sizes were derived from 33 studies in which participants made one or more choices between a small (or less preferred) immediate reward and a large (or more preferred) delayed reward. Overall, there was a small female advantage (r = .058). Further analyses revealed that the female advantage was larger when continuous measures (r = .096) rather than dichotomous measures were used (r = .021). No evidence was found for the gender gap changing systematically with age. Discussion focuses primarily on alternative explanations for the gender difference found here. Consideration is also given to how the female advantage in delay of gratification might be reflected in real-life situations.     

Gender and Sex Role Differences in Group Decision-Making Social Interactions: A Behavioral Analysis1

Sex role formulations assume relationships between role orientation and adjustive social behavior. However, few studies have examined behavioral differences with respect to both gender and sex role orientation in realistically complex social interactions. In the current study, groups composed of four male and four female “representatives” from each sex role category (masculine-typed, feminine-typed, androgynous, and undifferentiated) were presented with two group decision-making tasks. Group interactions were videotaped and subjects' behavior was rated on social skill variables. Analyses of variance revealed gender differences with males performing more actively than females, especially when the content of the decision-making task involved more historically male-oriented topics. However, when subjects' group behavior was examined in relation to their sex role orientation, androgynous and masculine-typed persons of both sexes performed in a more active, instrumental manner than feminine-typed or undifferentiated persons. Further, correlational analyses indicated that females' masculinity scores were substantially associated with ratings of effectiveness in the decision-making groups. Implications of these findings are discussed.     

The UCLA Body Project I: Gender and Ethnic Differences in Self-Objectification and Body Satisfaction Among 2,206 Undergraduates

This study examined whether objectification theory is useful for understanding gender, body mass, and ethnic differences in body satisfaction among 2,206 US undergraduates who completed a body image survey. Women reported lower body satisfaction than men (d?=?.37) and this was true across the majority of the BMI continuum. Very slender men, however, were less satisfied than very slender women who approached the female thin-ideal. Differences in body satisfaction among White, Asian, and Hispanic participants were small to moderate (ds?=?.18 to .45). Consistent with the prediction that self-objectification has particularly negative effects on women who deviate from the slender White ideal, the association between body dissatisfaction and appearance surveillance was strongest for heavier and minority women.     

Predicting Pay Grade in the U.S. Military by Gender and Ethnic Minority Status1

This study examined predictors of pay grade for ethnic minorities and women in the U.S. military using hierarchical regression analyses. In the analysis including all personnel, being a woman and ethnic minority status were negative predictors of pay grade after controlling for education and years of service. In the analysis using enlisted personnel, the interaction between years of service and minority status showed that more years of service was associated with higher pay grade among ethnic majority enlisted personnel after controlling for education and years of service. In the model using officers, being a woman was a negative predictor of pay grade after controlling for education and years of service. Future studies, implications, limitations, and strengths are discussed.     

Crying in Middle Childhood: A Report on Gender Differences

The aims of this study were (1) to confirm gender differences in crying in middle childhood and (2) to identify factors that may explain why girls cry more than boys in a Dutch sample (North Holland and Utrecht). We examined 186 children's (age: 9-13?years) self-reports on crying, catharsis, seeking support for feelings, and internalizing feelings. Girls reported a greater crying frequency and crying proneness, and more emotional and physical catharsis after crying. In addition, they more frequently sought support for feelings and more often experienced sadness and somatic complaints than boys. Seeking help for negative feelings and the experience of sadness and somatic complaints were positively associated with crying frequency and crying proneness. Emotional catharsis was positively linked to crying proneness. Support was found for the potential mediating role of sadness and somatic complaints with respect to the gender difference in crying frequency and for the potential mediating role of emotional catharsis and somatic complaints for crying proneness. This study demonstrates that gender differences in crying frequency already exist in middle childhood and the findings suggest a linkage between these gender differences in crying and psychosocial factors.     

Gender Differences in Cheating Attitudes and Classroom Cheating Behavior: A Meta-Analysis

Although academic dishonesty is a major problemin American colleges and universities, relatively littleresearch has investigated gender differences incheating. Based on the differential socialization theory of gender differences in moral reasoning(e.g., Chodorow, 1989; Gilligan, 1982) we expected that,compared to women, men would report more favorableattitudes toward cheating and more cheating behavior. We conducted a meta-analysis that included 8studies of gender differences in attitudes towardcheating, 34 studies of gender differences in cheatingbehavior, and 6 studies that investigated both attitudes and behavior. Although the mean effect size forgender differences in attitudes was of moderatemagnitude, equivalent to a correlation of r = .21, themean effect size for behavior was small, equivalent to r = .08. Behavior effect sizes also varied asa function of field of study, method of data collection,and country in which the study was conducted. We discussthe implications of our results for future research on gender differences in academicdishonesty.