THE SPLIT LEVEL PROBLEM AS RELATED TO THE TASK OF EVALUATING ITEMS IN THE CLINICAL AREA

H olley , J. W. & H ansson , K. The split level problem as related to the task of evaluating items in the clinical area. Scand.J. Psychol ., 1969, 10, 124–128—It is pointed out that correlational values can be distorted in item evaluation when the proportions of persons in the criterion groups are variant. The use of a 'K ratio' is suggested as a possible solution to be applied under restrictive conditions.     

BEHAVIORAL RESEARCH IN PREVENTIVE DENTISTRY: EDUCATIONAL AND CONTINGENCY MANAGEMENT APPROACHES TO THE PROBLEM OF PATIENT COMPLIANCE

This study examined the effects of reinforcement on compliance with an oral hygiene education program. Patients 18 years of age or older who enrolled in an ongoing program at a periodontal practice received 3–5 sessions of instruction in preventive dental care. Using a between-subjects design, patients who entered the program during alternating months also had a portion of their fees refunded contingent upon improvements in their dental plaque scores. Pre- and posttreatment data showed that all subjects exhibited lower plaque levels following the program, but that greater improvements were seen in patients who were exposed to the fee reduction contingency. Plaque scores taken at a 6-month follow-up revealed some relapse for the Fee Reduction subjects. However, their scores were still substantially better than pretreatment, and better than those of the Education only subjects, whose data differed little from untreated Controls. Methodological and practical issues related to behavioral research in preventive dentistry are discussed.     

ON THE CONCEPT OF FUTURE TIME ORIENTATION: CONSIDERATIONS OF SOME FUNCTIONs' AND MEASUREMENTs' IMPLICATIONS*

Empirical studies have revealed contradictory results concerning future time orientation and various other factors. The lack of consensus between the concept and measurements is postulated to be the main reason for the diversity in results. It is necessary to differentiate between (a) experimentally induced future (time) orientation and future time orientation (FTO) considered as a personality trait, and (b) between dimensions of FTO and the manifestation and functional significance of these dimensions in behavior. It is suggested that measurements of FTO should be related to nonspecific situations in order to avoid that certain valences, and thereby different degrees of arousal of FTO, are induced in the FTO measure itself.     

SOCIAL COMPARISON THEORY AND THE EVALUATION OF PEER EVALUATIONS: A REVIEW AND SOME APPLIED IMPLICATIONS

Some of the more fundamental characteristics of peer evaluations were reviewed and their striking industrial validity was noted. Subsequently, the theories put forth to account for the validity of peer evaluations were examined and found to be wanting. A review of the conditions under which peer evaluations yield strong validity coefficients as well as certain factor analytic and experimental studies indicated that social comparison theory might provide a useful framework for elucidating the nature of peer evaluation process. This theory was then related to the characteristics of peer evaluation and certain applied implications were suggested. It was concluded that further empirical research along these lines might have some value.     

个体之间的相互作用和儿童左右概念的发展

此实验利用5—6岁儿童左右概念的发展来研究在其它条件相同的情况下,不同形式的个体之间(不仅儿童之间,而且大人和儿童之间)的相互作用对儿童认知发展的影响。通过预试选取两种不同水平的儿童后用不同的相互作用方法训练,训练完立即对他们单独再测试,看他们在握掌此概念上的进步情况。此实验研究了;(1)儿童在和同伴或和大人共同作业时能否产生冲突以及儿童是用什么方式解决冲突的;(2)儿童单独作业时能否意识到自己前后答案的不一致而产生认知冲突;(3)以上2个问题和儿童在预试时已具有的水平之间的关系以及和他们在再测试时表现出来的进步之间的关系。     

ABOLISHING AND ESTABLISHING OPERATION ANALYSES OF SOCIAL ATTENTION AS POSITIVE REINFORCEMENT FOR PROBLEM BEHAVIOR

Three participants whose problem behavior was maintained by contingent attention were exposed to 45‐min presessions in which attention was withheld, provided on a fixed‐time (FT) 15‐s schedule, or provided on an FT 120‐s schedule. Following each presession, participants were then tested in a 15‐min session similar to the social attention condition of an analogue functional analysis. The results showed establishing operation conditions increased problem behavior during tests and that abolishing operation conditions decreased problem behavior during tests.     

SPELLING AND THE GROWTH OF CONCEPT OF WORD AS FIRST GRADERS WRITE

Word is a critical concept in beginning literacy, a foundation for both reading and orthographic understanding. In this study, the development of concept of word in children's own writing during first grade was examined and its relationship with developing spelling ability was described.

Children in three intact first grade classes were assigned concept of word tasks "typical" of first grade instruction at the beginning and end of the year. The spaces left between words as the children copied from the board, wrote from dictation, and created their own stories in a free writing task were counted and compared across tasks and between Fall and Spring. In addition, the children were given an assessment of their developmental spelling level at both times. The spelling scores were compared with the concept of word measures.

Analyses of the Fall data revealed that the word concept tasks were significantly related to each other, suggesting that the tasks tap different aspects of the same construct, concept of word. Spelling development was also related to concept of word, and children who demonstrated use of a letter name strategy in spelling were more likely to perform well on the concept of word tasks.

A 3 (word concept tasks) x 2 (trials) MANOVA identified a significant interaction between tasks and trials. Post hoc analyses found significant differences among all of the concept of word tasks overall. In the Fall, all comparisons among the tasks were significant, and in the Spring, all except the difference between Copied and Dictated were significant.

There appears to be a developmental hierarchy in acquisition of concept of word which is related to the perceptual demands of writing tasks. Though important gains in conceptual understanding are made during the first grade year, there are still differences in performance on concept of word tasks at the end of first grade.     

THE DEVELOPMENT OF SOCIAL ATTITUDES AS STUDIED IN TWO CROSS-CULTURAL RESEARCH PROJECTS1

Le développement des attitudes sociales. Deux projets de recherches interculturelles. — Présentation de deux projets de recherches interculturelles, issus de la Conférence sur le Développement des Recherches Interculturelles sur l'éducation des enfants et des adolescents (Février 1964, Chicago). La premiére étude concerne les processus par lesquels les enfants apprennent à se soumettre aux régies de la société; les attitudes à I'égard des lois et de l'autorité, de la justice, des conséquences de la non-soumission ainsi que la relation entre l'autorite dans la famille et le comportement hors de la maison seront étudiées en fonction de diverses variables d'age, de sexe et de classes sociales, de variables culturelles et de variables psychologiques, dans 6 pays differents (Danemark, Grèce, Inde, Italie, Japon, USA). La seconde recherche concerne le développement chez l'enfant de la compétence en matière de tâches et de relations interpersonnelles et de la maîtrise de l'agressivité et de l'anxiété, l'étude portera sur les buts professionnels et la conduite en matiére de résolution de problémes, comparés aux préférences des adultes et des maitres, selon l'âge et la classe sociale, dans 7 pays différents (Brésil, Japon, Angleterre, Allemagne, Italie, Mexique, USA).     

EFFECTS OF INCIDENTAL STIMULATION AS RELATED TO DIFFERENCES IN PERSONALITY AND EXPERIMENTAL CONDITIONS

S mith , G. J. W. Effects of incidental stimulation as related to differences in personality and experimental conditions. Scand. J. Psychol ., 1962, 3 , 16–20.—Two series of experiments, where reactions to incidental stimulation as measured by means of the meta-contrast technique have been compared with more general personality characteristics, are reviewed in this paper in an attempt to reconcile apparently contradictory results due to differences in experimental set-up.     

CONTRIBUTION OF SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY TO THE NATURE AND FUNCTION OF WORK AND ITS RELEVANCE TO SOCIETIES OF THE THIRD WORLD

It is argued that the concept of work is central to consideration of the future both of the industrialized and the Third World. Work must be sharply distinguished from paid employment to which we cannot look to provide entitlement to full citizenship, a role which it has acquired over a comparatively short period of time in industrial civilization. Work and education are artificially divided, the price for which is greatly higher in the developing than in the developed world. Sociotechnical assessment should be undertaken to ensure that the selection of technologies for use in developing countries will meet their requirements for the encouragement and growth of social and political as well as manual skills. There is a need for community processes to be studied and understood without neglect of their historical dimension.