民族本质论对跨民族交往的影响——以中国内地的藏族大学生为例

本研究以中国内地的藏族大学生为例,通过两个研究探讨了民族本质论对跨民族交往的影响。研究一通过相关研究发现,民族本质论与接触数量、接触质量呈显著负相关,与民族间的社会距离呈显著正相关;研究二启动了民族本质论和民族建构论,结果发现,相比本质论启动条件,民族建构论启动条件下藏族大学生的跨汉民族交往意愿较高。本研究说明,民族本质论是影响跨民族交往的重要因素,加强民族的社会建构论是促进跨民族交往的重要举措。     

Religions,modulators in Pluri‐ethnic cities: An anthropological analysis of the relative shift from ethnic to supra‐ethnic and meta‐ethnic faith communities in Brussels

Anthropological analysis of how and to what extent socio‐ethnic shifts take place in a pluri‐ethnic urban setting reveals that the process occurs from a situation of group‐clustering on the basis of ethnicity to a situation of ethnicity that is absorbed and sometimes left behind in faith communities. Situations are identified of social and religious‐cultural bridging to the region of origin, but also of socio‐cultural integration, supra‐ and meta‐ethnic self‐affirmation, cultural‐religious syncretisin and (non‐)adaptation to the host country. Religion is seen as a grammar with elements that may be considered as a form of modulation leading to social transformation. A number of generational and gender dimensions are also briefly discussed.     

“别人家的孩子”vs.平庸的自己：社会比较对独特性寻求行为的影响

人们在自我评价中普遍存在着优于平均值效应, 而上行社会比较会打破这一自我评价偏差, 引发后续的补偿性消费行为。通过5个实验, 依次论证上行比较(vs.下行比较)会提升个体对独特产品选项的偏好(实验1); 其心理机制在于上行比较降低了而非下行比较提升了个体的自我独特性感知, 从而促使个体出于补偿的目的而寻求独特性(实验2a、2b和2c); 上述效应适用于经济状况这一特定比较维度, 并且在感知经济流动性的调节作用下得到强化或削弱(实验3)。研究结论对于推动社会比较和独特性寻求行为相关领域的理论进展, 指导长尾市场中企业的营销策略、帮助个体缓解上行比较的威胁均有着积极的启示价值。     

Blinded by the accent! The minor role of looks in ethnic categorization

The categories that social targets belong to are often activated automatically. Most studies investigating social categorization have used visual stimuli or verbal labels, whereas ethnolinguistic identity theory posits that language is an essential dimension of ethnic identity. Language should therefore be used for social categorization. In 2 experiments, using the "Who Said What?" paradigm, the authors investigated social categorization by using accents (auditory stimuli) and looks (visual stimuli) to indicate ethnicity, either separately or in combination. Given either looks or accents only, the authors demonstrated that ethnic categorization can be based on accents, and the authors found a similar degree of ethnic categorization by accents and looks. When ethnic cues of looks and accents were combined by creating cross categories, there was a clear predominance of accents as meaningful cues for categorization, as shown in the respective parameters of a multinomial model. The present findings are discussed with regard to the generalizability of findings using one channel of presentation (e.g., visual) and the asymmetry found with different presentation channels for the category ethnicity.     

Social capital and economic outcomes for immigrants and ethnic minorities

The ambiguities of “social capital” can be clarified by reformulating it as a group-based resource derived from social relations, the effectiveness of which is contingent upon the extensity and intensity of social ties and the group’s resources, and the creation of which may involve a potential cost to an individual. This paper reviews the literature on immigrants and ethnic minorities to see how ethnic attachment as a form of social capital has affected the economic well-being of immigrants and minorities, and refines the concept of social capital. Studies of “ethnic attachment” and of the “ethnic mobility trap” have stressed the “penalty” of ethnic ties and affinity. However, studies on the ethnic enclave economy and transnational communities have attributed the prosperity of the enclave economy and the economic success of some ethnic diasporas to ethnic networks. The paper concludes that social capital can be enabling for individuals and groups, subject to the level of other forms of capital present. But social capital cannot replace other forms of capital to produce unrealistic outcomes beyond the material limits of its contextual boundaries. Thus, social capital is a useful concept, not as a universal virtue, but as a situation-based capacity bounded in specific social and class contexts.     

阶层流动的“双刃剑”效应及其心理机制

阶层流动是指人们在社会分层体系中相对位置的变化。人们普遍预期,向上流动促进个体发展和社会进步。然而近期研究也表明,向上流动还可能损害个体健康和主观幸福感,使人们低估和容忍社会不平等,并反对再分配。地位认同、贫富归因倾向以及系统公正信念能够解释向上流动的双刃剑效应。未来研究需要进一步澄清向上流动感知的具体表现,深入考察向上流动影响的心理机制,探索促进阶层流动积极效应发挥的干预方法。     

Stepping up Your Game: Workplace Experiences of Second-Generation Nigerians in the USA

This article discusses the workplace experiences of second-generation Nigerian adults in the USA. Drawing on data from semi-structured interviews with 67 respondents, I show that second-generation Nigerians differ in whether they perceive racial discrimination in the workplace. There was an almost even split between subjects who felt they had been discriminated against because of their race and those who said they had not experienced anti-black discrimination. For those who felt they had been racially discriminated against at work, their experiences took very similar forms to those of African Americans, with many drawing analogies between their workplace experiences and those of African Americans and other blacks. But there was evidence of intra-black dynamics with some experiencing ethnic discrimination from African Americans and some enjoying an advantage over African Americans because they are children of black immigrants. I showcase two strategic responses found among respondents: minimizing ethnic difference and stepping up one’s game, which were used to negotiate racism and achieve economic mobility. This is consistent with the minority cultures of mobility thesis; that minority groups have cultures of mobility that foster upward social mobility, and it challenges segmented assimilation theory’s perception that black immigrant groups and their children lack tenacity or adaptive strategies.     

阶层流动的“双刃剑”效应及其心理机制

阶层流动是指人们在社会分层体系中相对位置的变化。人们普遍预期,向上流动促进个体发展和社会进步。然而近期研究也表明,向上流动还可能损害个体健康和主观幸福感,使人们低估和容忍社会不平等,并反对再分配。地位认同、贫富归因倾向以及系统公正信念能够解释向上流动的双刃剑效应。未来研究需要进一步澄清向上流动感知的具体表现,深入考察向上流动影响的心理机制,探索促进阶层流动积极效应发挥的干预方法。     

The Complexity of Ethnic Identities: A Postmodern Reevaluation

Building on recent work outlining various theoretical approaches to ethnic identification and diasporas, in this article I attempt to evaluate the utility of these approaches in understanding the complexity of ethnicity at the advent of the new millennium. Theoretical approaches discussed include assimilation theory, primordialism, circumstantialism, constructionism, various reinterpretations of the "new ethnicity" or "symbolic ethnicity" and types of diaspora ethnicities. I adopt the relativistic view that some utility may be found in virtually all these approaches, not the least in understanding ethnic conflict. Yet, it is crucial to be cognizant of the fast-emerging emphasis in the social sciences on postmodernist impressions of how diasporas, transnationalism, and globalization have been affecting-and will increasingly influence-the trend toward complex multiethnicity.     

Ethnic differences in endorsement of the Protestant work ethic: the role of ethnic identity and perceptions of social class

The authors examined ethnic differences in endorsement of the Protestant work ethic (PWE; M. Weber, 1905) among Black (n = 96) and White (n = 149) college students and tested whether differences in ethnic identity and perceptions of social class mediated the relationship between ethnicity and the endorsement of PWE values. Blacks were higher in levels of ethnic identity, more likely to see themselves as working or middle class, and less likely to endorse the PWE. Only perceptions of social class partially mediated the relationship between ethnicity and PWE values. The authors concluded that perception of social class is an important construct that might influence the cultural psychology of different ethnic groups. The authors recommended further research involving PWE and other cultural variables.     

Ethnic identity, self-esteem, and occupational aspirations of Indian and Anglo-Saxon British adolescents

A questionnaire monitoring occupational aspiration, ethnic identification, adolescent experience, and self-esteem was administered to a large sample of Indian and Anglo-Saxon British male and female adolescents attending school in the West Midlands. The relationship between these variables and differences between the four groups were consistent with predictions derived from the social identity approach to intergroup relations and group behaviour (Tajfel & Turner, 1979). Indian males were found to possess a social mobility belief structure that mediates high occupational aspirations and keeness to marry out of their ethnic group. In contrast, Indian females were found to possess a social change belief structure associated with acceptance of the status quo and lower aspirations. Males and Anglo-Saxons reported higher self-esteem than females or Indians. The adolescent experience findings were less clear, but were consistent with the general interpretation of the data that the differences in intersex relations and gender-related experiences are contingent on ethnicity.     

Relational to collective: significant-other representations, ethnic categories, and intergroup perceptions

Social perception is known to be affected by the social-cognitive process of transference-that is, by a new person bearing a minimal resemblance to a significant other, which activates the significant-other representation and indirectly the relational self. We examined relational processes in social identity and intergroup bias in two studies testing the dual hypothesis-that activating a significant-other representation in transference activates the significant other's ethnic category, which is then applied to the new person, and that under this circumstance the participant's own ethnic identity should also be activated as the relational self is activated, particularly if the participant shares the significant other's ethnicity. This should lead to shifts in intergroup bias as moderated by the ethnic diversity of the significant other's own social network. The evidence largely supports this, revealing the interplay of relational and collective levels of self.     

Is Racial Profiling More Benign in Medicine Than Law Enforcement?

It might seem that racial profiling by doctors raised few of the same concerns as racial profiling by police, immigration, or airport security. This paper argues that the similarities are greater than first appear. The inappropriate use of racial generalizations by doctors may be as harmful and insulting as their use by law enforcement officials. Indeed, the former may be more problematic in compromising an ideal of individualized treatment that is more applicable to doctors than to police. Yet doctors, unlike police, should not attempt to ignore race altogether. Race and ethnicity are associated with the geography of disease, with social and cultural factors relevant to disease, and, to some extent, with genetic predispositions to disease. Moreover, greater attention to the distinctive health conditions of certain racial and ethnic groups is necessary to make up for past neglect. But it will be a tricky business to steer a middle course between a naïve, reckless, or dogmatic color blindness and a stereotype-driven overreliance on race and ethnicity. In trying to steer such a course, the doctor can only hope for the day when a combination of more individualized genomic medicine and greater social equality will make it possible for her to pay less attention to race and ethnicity without detriment to her patients?? health.     

Facing the risk of upward mobility: Performance-avoidance goals and social class among high-school students

ABSTRACT

Recent research has shown that lower social class students are more likely to endorse performance-avoidance goals (i.e., the fear of performing poorly) than higher-class students, particularly in situations of success. The purpose of the present research is, first, to test the upward mobility process as a moderator of the link between social class and performance-avoidance goal endorsement. The second aim is to document the further impact of this process on academic performance. Two hundred and fifteen high school students (M _age = 17.40, SD = 0.69) participated in the experiment. Half of them were randomly assigned to a “mobility salience” condition where they completed a mobility perception scale; while the other half completed a neutral scale. Then, they answered performance-avoidance goal items and solved mathematics, physics and life and earth sciences exercises. Results indicated that the salience of the mobility process increased the effect of social class on both performance-avoidance goal endorsement and mathematic performance. In addition, performance-avoidance goals appeared to be a mediator of the interaction effect between social class and the salience of the mobility process on mathematics performance. No such findings were obtained for physics and life and earth sciences. Taken together, these results support the idea that the prospect of experiencing mobility may be one of the mechanisms behind the difficulties encountered by lower-class students in an academic context.     

Crossing National Boundaries: Social Identity Formation Among Recent Immigrant Women in Australia From Former Yugoslavia

For both individuals and communities, crossing national boundaries involves managing personal and social identities in new social settings. This process is facilitated by social, cultural, and economic features of both the country of origin and the country of destination as well as the personal skills of the individuals who migrate. In-depth interviews with women in Australia from former Yugoslavia reveal how they draw ethnic boundaries and maintain a native ethnic identity in their private lives, partly in response to the difficulties they face in crossing other boundaries in Australian society, such as the labor market, educational institutions, and relationships with the Australia-born population. Women's previous and current socioeconomic status, and their ethnic and educational background, interplay in developing new identities in the new social setting that cannot be reduced to native ethnicity. In this article we deal with women's practices in their private lives that symbolize immigrants' identity formation within a given social context.     

J.P. Rushton’s theory of ethnic nepotism

Unreciprocated aid among co-ethnics and the emotional intensity of ethnic conflict have long been explanatory challenges to evolutionary science. J.P. Rushton’s theory of assortative ethnic affiliation–altruism, mating and friendship directed towards fellow ethnics–derives from his more general theory of genetic similarity (GST). GST proposes that humans give preferential treatment to others in whom they detect genetic resemblance and that such behavior enhances genetic fitness. The theory coincides with W.D. Hamilton’s theory of inclusive fitness as applied to relations between populations. GST helps explain core features of ethnicity, including its basis in putative kinship and correlation with gene frequencies. Ethnic nepotism due to similarity is a weak social force compared to social identity. However its pervasiveness makes it a potential driver of evolutionary and social change, a potential borne out by sociological studies of the impact of ethnic diversity on social cohesion and public altruism. Genomics confirms the theory for interactions within populations with sufficient genetic diversity, such as ethnically mixed societies. GST applied to ethnicity is promising for further research in evolutionary social science because it unifies evolutionary and behavioral mechanisms in a single theory.     

Subjectivity and Class Consciousness: The Development of Class Identity

In this paper, the author explores issues of self and identity, in particular the development of consciousness of social class and the negotiation of conflicting class identities. Literature on working-class students and academics from the working class indicates that upward mobility from working class to professional class can be disorienting due to class-related sociocultural differences and the internalization of class conflicts. By drawing upon one case from an ethnographic study with ten female professors from the working class, the author explores the development of one woman's working-class consciousness and the ways in which it influenced her teaching. Detailed analyses of three narratives from one interview are presented that highlight particular contexts and events in a process of class identity development.     

The influence of coping styles on mammography screening in a multiethnic sample

A total of 308 women from seven ethnic subpopulations (comprising major ethnic groups of Black, Hispanic, and non-Hispanic White) were interviewed to examine their coping styles in response to an imagined breast cancer diagnosis and to determine relationships among ethnicity, access to mammography, coping styles, and mammography screening. There were ethnic subpopulation differences in the five coping styles identified (problem solving, social support, positive reframing, wishful thinking, and avoidance), and in the relations between screening rates and coping styles. Specifically, ethnicity differentially moderated the relationship between screening rates and avoidance within and between major groups. Researchers studying behavior that is likely to be impacted by culture, such as health preventive behaviors, are well advised to take coping styles into account, as well as to examine potential ethnic subpopulation differences.