The Conference Morning Keynote Address of Dr. Laurence Steinberg on the Age of Opportunity and Lessons from the New Science of Adolescence: With Introductory and Closing Commentary

ABSTRACT

Dr. Laurence Steinberg’s busy schedule prevented him from contributing his own journal article based on his keynote address. However, he was able to review, edit, and approve the contents of this article, which captures his keynote address, while covering the following topics: 1) the need to change how adolescence is conceived as something to survive; 2) the need to turn to brain science for a new vision of adolescence, including the importance of understanding brain plasticity; 3) the essential focus on self-control as a factor for consideration, as per findings from research; 4) the impact from the interaction of sex hormones and the neurotransmitter dopamine upon adolescents; 5) how adolescence is a stage of opportunity, as well as vulnerability due to brain plasticity—as in being vulnerable to mental illness, substance dependence, and stress and trauma; 6) the need to change how we think about juvenile justice policy and practice, and five lessons from brain science in this regard; 7) the importance of considering early disadvantages for children of color and implications for disparities; 8) implications, overall, for policy and practice in the criminal justice system; 9) the need to re-think how society sanctions adolescents, as well as the need for professionals and society to take advantage of adolescence as an opportunity. Finally, the article ends with the author’s own commentary and analysis, which extends some of the implications of the keynote address—including the need to focus on both proximal and distal factors, such as social determinants of disadvantage.     

Helpful or Harmful? The Different Relationships Between Private Facebook Interactions and Adolescents’ Depressive Symptoms

ABSTRACT

This study aims to provide greater insight into the role of 2 aspects of online peer interactions—perceived online social support and online corumination—in the short-term longitudinal relationship between private Facebook interactions and adolescents’ depressive symptoms. Special attention is given to gender differences. To test our hypotheses, a 2-wave panel study was set up (N_Time1 = 1,840). Using structural equation modeling, results showed that private Facebook interactions were concurrently positively related to boys’ and girls’ online corumination and online corumination was positively associated with boys’ and girls’ depressive symptoms. In addition, results revealed that private Facebook interactions were predictive of relative increases in boys’ and girls’ perceptions of online social support over time (i.e., 6 months later). Perceptions of online social support in turn were predictive of relative decreases in girls’ depressive symptoms over time. The discussion focuses on the understanding and implications of these findings.     

Predictors of Entry into Age-Discordant Relationships Among Adolescent Girls

Teenage girls in age-discordant relationships remain of concern for healthy development and well-being. We examine whether factors from several sociological frameworks—self-esteem, deviance, social ecology, family cohesion, and religious involvement—predict entry into such relationships. With longitudinal data on 1,537 adolescent girls, we use structural equation modeling to assess risk and protective factors by age group. Results indicate that few social factors predict entry to such relationships; only religious involvement for the youngest adolescents and self-esteem for middle adolescents predict entry. While adolescent girls who date older males are largely like their peers, any impact of social factors may vary by the developmental stage that adolescent girls occupy.     

Specificity of peer difficulties to social anxiety in early adolescence: categorical and dimensional analyses with clinical and community samples

Background and Objectives: We investigated the specificity of social difficulties to social anxiety by testing associations of social anxiety and other anxiety presentations with peer acceptance and victimization in community and treatment-seeking samples of adolescents aged 12–14 years.

Design: Cross-sectional, quantitative survey.

Methods: Adolescents from the community (n?=?116) and a clinical setting (n?=?154) completed ratings of anxiety symptoms, perceived social acceptance, and peer victimization. Their parents also completed ratings of the adolescents’ anxiety and social acceptance.

Results: Social acceptance was lowest among adolescents with social anxiety disorder (SAD) and lower among adolescents with other anxiety disorders than in the community sample. Anxiety symptoms were negatively correlated with social acceptance, but these associations were not unique to social anxiety symptoms. Girls in the community sample reported more overt victimization than girls with SAD and with other anxiety diagnoses. Relational victimization was associated with social and nonsocial anxiety symptoms only in the community sample.

Conclusions: Our findings supplement recent laboratory-based observational studies on social functioning among adolescents with SAD and other anxiety disorders. Although social anxiety may be associated with unique social skill deficits and impairment, concerns about peer relations should also be considered among adolescents with other anxiety symptoms.     

Global Self-Esteem in Technical/Vocational Versus General Secondary School Tracks: A Matter of Gender?

This article examines the consequences of being in a technical/vocational track for the global self-esteem of adolescents, with special attention to gender. The t-tests and multilevel analyses were performed with data from 3,720 Flemish fifth-year pupils—2,404 boys and 1,316 girls—in 33 secondary schools: 19 technical/vocational schools and 14 general schools. The analyses show that girls have significantly lower self-esteem than boys and that this gender effect suppresses a track effect. Analyses performed separately for boys and girls demonstrate that boys in technical/vocational schools have a significantly lower self-esteem than boys in general schools, but the analyses for girls show no difference for school type. Theoretical possibilities offer explanations for this gender difference in the consequences of being in a technical/vocational versus general track.     

Adolescents' social anxiety dynamics in a latent transition analysis and its psychosocial effects

Background/ObjectiveThe present study aims to explore the dynamics of social anxiety profiles in adolescents over time and the psychosocial effects these dynamics have.MethodA representative sample of Andalusian (southern Spain) adolescents in Secondary Education was drawn. The study used single-stage stratified cluster sampling. A total of 2,140 students aged 11-16 years (47% girls; M_ageT1 = 13.68, SD = 1.27) were involved at two time points with a six-month interval.ResultsThe results provided a four-profile structure: low social anxiety, moderate cognitive disturbance, high with difficulties in new situations, and high social anxiety. The latent transition analysis showed a stability in the social anxiety profiles of between 58%-61%. Those adolescents who remained in or transitioned to profiles with higher social anxiety scored worse on peer adjustment, peer victimization and subjective well-being.ConclusionsThe study may contribute the improvement of the psychological treatments in social anxiety and reduce adverse effects on peer relationships and well-being by distinguishing the profiles and their dynamics.     

A speech and psychological profile of treatment-seeking adolescents who stutter

PurposeThe purpose of this study was to evaluate the relationship between stuttering severity, psychological functioning, and overall impact of stuttering, in a large sample of adolescents who stutter.MethodParticipants were 102 adolescents (11–17 years) seeking speech treatment for stuttering, including 86 boys and 16 girls, classified into younger (11–14 years, n = 57) and older (15–17 years, n = 45) adolescents. Linear regression models were used to evaluate the relationship between speech and psychological variables and overall impact of stuttering.ResultsThe impact of stuttering during adolescence is influenced by a complex interplay of speech and psychological variables. Anxiety and depression scores fell within normal limits. However, higher self-reported stuttering severity predicted higher anxiety and internalizing problems. Boys reported externalizing problems—aggression, rule-breaking—in the clinical range, and girls reported total problems in the borderline-clinical range. Overall, higher scores on measures of anxiety, stuttering severity, and speech dissatisfaction predicted a more negative overall impact of stuttering.ConclusionTo our knowledge, this is the largest cohort study of adolescents who stutter. Higher stuttering severity, speech dissatisfaction, and anxiety predicted a more negative overall impact of stuttering, indicating the importance of carefully managing the speech and psychological needs of adolescents who stutter. Further research is needed to understand the relationship between stuttering and externalizing problems for adolescent boys who stutter.     

Feelings Matter: Depression Severity and Emotion Regulation in HIV/STI Risk-Related Sexual Behaviors

Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)/sexually transmitted infection (STI) prevention models may not address psychological complexities among adolescents with mental illnesses. This study examined contextual factors related to HIV/STI risk among heterosexually active Black adolescents with mental illnesses to inform the development of targeted HIV/STI prevention strategies. Black adolescent males and females (aged 14–17) were recruited from outpatient mental health programs in Philadelphia, PA to complete a computer-assisted personalized interview on sociodemographics, sexual behaviors, and emotion regulation (N?=?53). Two sample t-tests, Wilcoxon Rank Sum tests and regression modeling were used to examine differences in the study measures by gender and relationship status. Reports of sexual partner concurrency were high—both while already in a sexual relationship (67.3%) and multiple sexual partners in the same day (42.3%). Boys reported significantly more risk behaviors than girls. Sadness dysregulation predicted currently being in a relationship, older age at first oral sex, fewer vaginal sexual partners and fewer unprotected oral sexual encounters. Coping difficulties predicted a greater number of vaginal and oral sexual partners, and a lower age at first vaginal sex. Increasing depression severity was related to older age at first vaginal sex, fewer vaginal sexual partners and fewer unprotected oral sexual encounters in the past 3 months. This formative work suggests that coping mechanisms should be addressed in HIV/STI prevention research through the inclusion of activities targeted toward emotion regulation and decreasing sexual risk behaviors. Psycho-education and skills building may mitigate the psychopathology that contributes to HIV/STI risk in the target demographic.     

Moderating role of family and friends’ factors between disocial behavior and consumption in adolescents

This study analyzes the relation between dissocial behaviors and substances consumption in adolescents, and tests the moderating role of social risk factors from family and peers in this relation. 1,239 adolescents of Secondary school, 612 boys and 627 girls, from 11-18 (M = 14.39; SD = 1.43) from state and private schools completed an adapted questionnaire from the State survey on risk activities for health in adolescents (ESTUDES) and the FRIDA questionnaire about social risk factors. We found that disocial behaviors and consumption are common and are closely related. MHMR analysis confirm the moderate role of two risk family factors (indifference family reaction against drugs consumption and a permissive and tolerant parental educative style) besides tolerant attitude towards consumption on friends and easily access to drugs. That moderation is higher for girls than for boys. The results of this work highlight the influence of family and friends’ factors between dissocial behaviors and drug consumption and contribute to the knowledge of an operational model for the development of preventing programs.     

Responses to Conflict and Cooperation in Adolescents with Anxiety and Mood Disorders

This study examined patterns of behavioral and emotional responses to conflict and cooperation in adolescents with anxiety/mood disorders and healthy peers. We compared performance on and emotional responses to the Prisoner’s Dilemma (PD) game, an economic exchange task involving conflict and cooperation, between adolescents with anxiety/depressive disorders (A/D) (N=21) and healthy comparisons (n = 29). Participants were deceived to believe their co-player (a pre-programmed computer algorithm) was another study participant. A/D adolescents differed significantly from comparisons in patterns of play and emotional response to the game. Specifically, A/D participants responded more cooperatively to cooperative overtures from their co-players; A/D girls also reported more anger toward co-players than did comparison girls. Our findings indicate that A/D adolescents, particularly females, respond distinctively to stressful social interchanges. These findings offer a first step toward elucidating the mechanisms underlying social impairment in youth with internalizing disorders. This research was supported by the Intramural Research Program of the NIH, NIMH.     

A longitudinal examination of factors predicting anxiety during the transition to middle school

Abstract

The transition from elementary to middle or junior high school is commonly regarded as a period of stress and turmoil for young adolescents, and has been associated with changes in anxiety and other psychological problems. However, less is known about risk and resilience factors that may predict these changes. This study examined changes in anxiety, as well as predictors of these changes among 77, predominantly Caucasian (88%), male and female (52%) adolescents from Grades 6 to 8. Repeated measures analysis of variance was conducted to examine the predicted grade and gender differences. Multiple regression analyses were conducted to examine the prediction of eighth grade anxiety symptoms by sixth grade self-worth, perceived social acceptance, and social support, as well as the potential moderating role of gender in these relations. Results suggested a significant decrease in anxiety, particularly social anxiety, over this period for boys but not girls. Examination of predictors of changes in anxiety suggested that, in general, global self-worth, social acceptance, and gender were each associated with overall and social anxiety. Findings are integrated with extant literature on developmental changes associated with anxiety and school transitions and clinical implications of these findings are discussed.     

Perceiving Racism in Ambiguous Situations: Who Relies on Easy-to-Use Information?

Abstract

In situations that are ambiguous with regard to the presence of discrimination, how do people arrive at their conclusions that discrimination has (or has not) taken place? This question was examined from a motivated social cognition perspective via the interaction of two factors: the prototype effect—the notion that ambiguously discriminatory behavior is more likely to be perceived as discriminatory when the executor is prototypical and the need for cognitive closure—the tendency to jump hastily to and seize on an answer. Results provided replicating evidence of the prototype effect among European American participants but not among African American participants. Specifically, European Americans were likely to perceive ambiguously racist behavior enacted by a prototypical executor (i.e., a White person) as more discriminatory than the same behavior exhibited by a non-prototypical executor (i.e., a Black person). African American participants, on the other hand, showed no reliance on this simple cognitive heuristic. Furthermore, results showed that European Americans with a higher need for cognitive closure were more likely to rely on the easy-to-use information offered by prototypes. These findings are discussed from a motivated social cognition perspective.     

Validation d’une mesure de climat de groupe chez des adolescentes en centre de réadaptation : le vécu éducatif partagé au travers de trois dimensions essentielles

Introduction and objectiveThe present study examines the construct validity and reliability of a group climate measure (QCGCR), associated to real life intervention, in a sample of 153 girls (M age = 15.2 years) placed in Canadian residential care centers.MethodConfirmatory factor analysis have been performed on three distinctive factors of group climate measure: “peer relation”, “relation with educators” and “educative practices”.ResultsThe results show an adequate fit to the data, indicating construct validity of this measure of group climate. Cronbach's alpha reliability coefficients are also good for all the 12 associated scales.ConclusionsThis measure of group climate reflects the life in units of residential care centers, through these three distinctive factors, and fits to re educative context links to adolescents in social re adaptation.     

The influence of age and gender on ultra-rapid categorization

ABSTRACT

In ultra-rapid categorization studies, population-level reaction time differences in performance are consistently reported. In a previous study, we replicated these findings and also observed consistent gender differences in young adults (18–24 years old). We now tested a group of adolescents (11–16 years old) on the same ultra-rapid categorization tasks. Results indicated that age had a significant impact on categorization performance. Although women outperformed men during adulthood, this effect reversed in adolescence (boys faster than girls). This gender x age interaction for categorizing meaningful (non-)social visual scenes could be caused by gender-specific development processes underlying emotion regulation strategies and/or context sensitivity.     

Motor ability and self-esteem: The mediating role of physical self-concept and perceived social acceptance

ObjectivesOne important issue in sport and exercise psychology is to determine to what extent sports and exercise can help to increase self-esteem, and what the underlying mechanism might be. Based on the exercise and self-esteem model (EXSEM) and on findings from the sociometer theory, the mediating effect of physical self-concept and perceived social acceptance on the longitudinal relationship between motor ability and self-esteem was investigated.DesignLongitudinal study with three waves of data collection at intervals of ten weeks each.Method428 adolescents (46.3% girls, M_age = 11.9, SD = .55) participated in the study, in which they performed three motor ability tests and completed paper-and-pencil questionnaires for physical self-concept and perceived social acceptance, as well as for self-esteem, at all three measuring points.ResultsUsing structural equation modelling procedures, the multiple mediation model revealed both physical self-concept and perceived social acceptance to be mediators between motor ability and self-esteem in the case of boys. In girls, on the other hand, the mediation between motor ability and self-esteem only takes place via physical self-concept.ConclusionsGender differences in the relationship between motor ability and self-esteem suggest gender-specific interventions aimed at promoting self-concept.     

Children and adolescents who stutter: Further investigation of anxiety

PurposeDespite the greatly increased risk of social anxiety disorder in adults who stutter, there is no clear indication of the time of onset of this disorder in childhood and adolescence. The purpose of this study was to explore this issue further using the Revised Children's Manifest Anxiety Scale (RCMAS), so that appropriate interventions can be developed prior to adulthood. This is the first time the RCMAS has been completed by children younger than 11 years. Using the same test for both school-age children and adolescents can potentially identify when anxiety starts to develop from age 6 years through to adulthood.MethodsThe RCMAS was administered to 18 school-age boys, five school-age girls, 41 adolescent boys and nine adolescent girls who were seeking treatment for their stuttering. Participants also rated the severity of their own stuttering.ResultsAll mean scaled scores on the four RCMAS subscales and Total Anxiety scores were within normal limits. However, for both groups of boys, scores on the Lie Scale were significantly higher than scores on the other three subscales.ConclusionsExperts suggest high scores on the RCMAS Lie Scale are indicative of participants attempting to present themselves in a positive light and so cast doubt on the veracity of their other responses on the test. One interpretation, then, is that the boys were concealing true levels of anxiety about their stuttering. The results suggest why findings of anxiety studies in children and adolescents to date are equivocal. Clinical implications are discussed.Educational objectives: The reader will be able to: (a) discuss why understanding when anxiety starts in people who stutter is important, (b) describe the function of the RCMAS Lie sub scale and (c) summarize the possible implications of the RCMAS findings in this study.     

Multifarious person perception: How social perceivers manage the complexity of intersectional targets

Stereotyping plays an important role in how we perceive the members of social groups. Yet stereotyping is complicated by the fact that every individual simultaneously belongs to multiple social groups. For example, the stereotypes that are called to mind about a Black individual can vary depending on that person's age, gender, and sexual orientation. This phenomenon—termed intersectional stereotyping—has recently inspired a variety of intriguing research findings. But these research findings pose challenges for prevalent theories of stereotyping. These prevalent theories tend to argue either that (a) perceivers inevitably attend to certain social identities (e.g., gender) when stereotyping intersectional targets, or that (b) perceivers inevitably attend to all detectable social identities at once. In contrast to these perspectives, we argue that perceivers generally attend to just one social identity (or one intersection of identities) at a time when stereotyping intersectional targets, as a function of the social context. For example, gay Black men can be alternately stereotyped as gay people, as Black people, as men, or as gay Black men specifically. The approach described here can account for a diverse array of findings emerging from research on intersectional stereotyping. Moreover, by specifying the factors that render particular identities salient in the minds of social perceivers, this approach offers clear and falsifiable predictions regarding the situated stereotyping of multifaceted individuals.     

A qualitative exploration of school racial diversity,friendship choices,and Black women's identity-based experiences in high school

Social integration is a critical component of adolescents' positive school adjustment. Although prior scholars have highlighted how Black women and girls' social identities (e.g., race, gender, social class) influence their academic and social experiences in school, very little work has focused on how school racial diversity shapes Black girls' peer networks throughout K–12 education. To address this gap in the literature, the present qualitative study explored the narratives of 44 Black undergraduate women (M_age = 20 years) who reflected on their friendship choices in high school. We used consensual qualitative research methods to examine how Black women navigated friendships during their time attending predominantly White (less than 20% Black), racially diverse (21%–60% Black), and predominantly Black (61%–100% Black) high schools. Coding analyses revealed five friendship themes: (a) Black female friends, (b) mostly Black friends, (c) mostly interracial friends, (d) mostly White friends, and (e) White friends in academic settings and Black friends in social settings. Our findings highlight how the young women's ongoing negotiation of racialized and gendered school norms influenced their sense of closeness with same-race and interracial peers. Black girls may have challenges with forming lasting and meaningful friendships when they cannot find peers who are affirming and supportive, particularly in predominantly White school contexts. This study underscores the need to look at how racial diversity in the student population offers school psychologists and educators insight into how to better support the social and emotional development of Black girls.     

Profiles of Resilience and Psychosocial Outcomes among Young Black Gay and Bisexual Men

Young Black gay/bisexual men (YBGBM) are affected by contextual stressors—namely syndemic conditions and minority stress—that threaten their health and well‐being. Resilience is a process through which YBGBM achieve positive psychosocial outcomes in the face of adverse conditions. Self‐efficacy, hardiness and adaptive coping, and social support may be important resilience factors for YBGBM. This study explores different profiles of these resilience factors in 228 YBGBM in New York City and compares profiles on psychological distress, mental health, and other psychosocial factors. Four profiles of resilience were identified: (a) Low self‐efficacy and hardiness/adaptive coping (23.5%); (b) Low peer and parental support (21.2%); (c) High peer support, low father support (34.5%); and (d) High father and mother support, self‐efficacy, and hardiness/adaptive coping (20.8%). YBGBM in profile 1 scored markedly higher on distress (d = .74) and lower on mental health functioning (d = .93) compared to men in the other profiles. Results suggest that self‐efficacy and hardiness/adaptive coping may play a more important role in protecting YBGBM from risks compared to social support and should be targeted in interventions. The findings show that resilience is a multidimensional construct and support the notion that there are different patterns of resilience among YBGBM.     

The Democratization of Art: A Contextual Approach

ABSTRACT

Publicly funded museums and art galleries have been called upon to demonstrate their worth as nodes of social inclusion and facilitators of social change. Flagship galleries have been constructed to foster urban regeneration in part aimed at social inclusivity and transformation. A new museology has emerged that is perceived to be intrinsically more democratic for visitors. This focus on the democratization of art in academia and cultural policy is not matched by a focus on robust empirical research. There are few studies that demonstrate successful democratization and little work that considers methodological issues. This article responds to critiques leveled at three conceptions of the democratization of art to develop a fourth conception—the contextual approach. I argue that collecting visitor sociodemographic data is meaningful only in the context of an institution's social construction and the role of art in the everyday lives of visitors and nonvisitors. Understanding that a good life is possible without engagement with high culture must be part of a democratization agenda.