Understanding the foot‐in‐the‐door effect as a pseudo‐effect from the perspective of the Campbell paradigm

Compliance with a small request (a metaphorical foot‐in‐the‐door) promotes compliance with a subsequent big request. Whereas some explanations expect a drop in the behavioural costs of the big request, others suspect that the effect comes from boosting the underlying attitude. However, evidence for both explanations is equivocal and circumstantial, at best. Drawing on what Kaiser et al. (2010) call the Campbell paradigm, we present an integrative account: Compliance with any request demands a corresponding attitude to counterbalance the costs of the request. In our research, 229 participants were randomly assigned to either a foot‐in‐the‐door (i.e., initially asked to sign a pro‐environmental petition) or a control condition. Small‐request‐compliant participants were more likely than control participants to also comply with the big request and to continue filling out environmental‐issues‐related questionnaires. However, this foot‐in‐the‐door effect occurred without diminishing behavioural costs or increasing attitude levels. Accordingly, the greater likelihood of small‐request‐compliant participants to also comply with the big request can be parsimoniously explained by baseline variability in people's attitude levels that manifests in their compliance with the initial request. We conclude that several of the foot‐in‐the‐door effects reported in the literature carry the risk of representing mere pseudo‐effects.     

The effect of exposure to weapons on aggressive behavior from a cross-cultural perspective

An attempt was made to replicate the Berkowitz and Le Page (1967) study with a Swedish population, and to extend it. A pilot study was conducted to find out what other possible stimuli carry aggressive connotations and what stimuli might have aggression-inhibiting qualities. One hundred male high school students were either angered or not angered by an accomplice of the experimenter and then given an opportunity to counter-aggress. For one group of subjects there were weapons near the shock key and half of these subjects were told to handle them. For another group there were aggression-inhibiting stimuli present, e.g., a baby bottle. In other conditions there were no stimuli present. Parts of the TAT were administered to shed some light on the catharsis phenomenon. Subjects exposed to weapons gave the largest number of shocks to their partners, whereas the control group and the group exposed to aggression-inhibiting stimuli did not differ. The “weapons effect” was obtained with a Swedish population.     

Honesty‐humility and prosocial behavior: The mediating roles of perspective taking and guilt‐proneness

The prosocial personality trait of honesty‐humility has received extensive attention in the last decade. However, research on the mechanism underlying the relationship between honesty‐humility and prosocial behavior is rather scarce. This study aims to explore the internal mechanism underlying this relationship to draw a complete picture of the honesty‐humility trait. A sample of 458 Chinese young adults was obtained to complete self‐report measures of honesty‐humility, perspective taking, guilt‐proneness, and prosocial behavior. The mediation model revealed that: (1) honesty‐humility positively related to prosocial behavior; (2) perspective taking and guilt‐proneness mediated the relationship between honesty‐humility and prosocial behavior, separately; and (3) the effect of honesty‐humility on prosocial behavior was mediated via perspective taking and then guilt‐proneness. In conclusion, we provide an initial support for the mediating roles of perspective taking and guilt‐proneness in the relationship between honesty‐humility and prosocial behavior. Both theoretical and practical implications for understanding the psychological mechanisms of prosocial behavior are discussed.     

Causal learning from probabilistic events in 24‐month‐olds: an action measure

How do young children learn about causal structure in an uncertain and variable world? We tested whether they can use observed probabilistic information to solve causal learning problems. In two experiments, 24‐month‐olds observed an adult produce a probabilistic pattern of causal evidence. The toddlers then were given an opportunity to design their own intervention. In Experiment 1, toddlers saw one object bring about an effect with a higher probability than a second object. In Experiment 2, the frequency of the effect was held constant, though its probability differed. After observing the probabilistic evidence, toddlers in both experiments chose to act on the object that was more likely to produce the effect. The results demonstrate that toddlers can learn about cause and effect without trial‐and‐error or linguistic instruction on the task, simply by observing the probabilistic patterns of evidence resulting from the imperfect actions of other social agents. Such observational causal learning from probabilistic displays supports human children's rapid cultural learning.     

The self-choice effect from a multiple-cue perspective

The self-choice effect refers to the fact that self-chosen items are remembered better than experimenter-assigned items (Takahashi, 1991). The present study investigated the hypothesis that (a) response choice involves relational processing as activation of both target and context items, and (b) such activated context items are effective as potential retrieval cues for recall of target items. In the experiment, participants chose (choice condition) or were assigned (force condition) a target to remember for each trial. Prior to free recall of the target items, context words, related new words, or unrelated words were presented in a recognition task as potential retrieval cues. The results of a subsequent free recall test indicated that the incidental cues were more effective in the choice condition than in the force condition. Also, recognition resulted in a greater rate of successfully recognized context words at the cost of increasing falsely recognized related new words in the choice condition in comparison with the force condition. These results indicated that response choice activates context items at encoding, which operate as potential retrieval cues for recall of target items. Such cuing mechanisms operative in the self-choice effect are consistent with the multiple-cue theory proposed by Soraci et al. (1994; see also Soraci et al., 1999) for generative processing.     

Visualizing actions from a third‐person perspective: effects on health behavior and the moderating role of behavior difficulty

Visualizing behavior from a third‐person (vs. first‐person) perspective can produce stronger motivation to enact the behavior. However, the effects of perspective on health behaviors have been mixed. Hypothesizing that the difficulty of the visualized behavior might moderate the effect of perspective, two experiments manipulated the difficulty of the visualized behaviors (fruit/vegetable consumption; exercise) plus perspective and subsequently measured motivation (Experiments 1 and 2) and behavior (Experiment 2). In both experiments, the third‐person perspective produced stronger motivation to perform the easier, but not the more difficult, behavior. This effect extended to behavior in Experiment 2. Under certain conditions, encouraging people to visualize behavior from a third‐person perspective could represent a useful and cost‐effective means of promoting health behavior change.     

Revisiting an era in Germany from the perspective of adolescents in mother‐headed single‐parent families

Much of the documented work on families headed by single mothers is based on empirical evidence from North America and a few Anglo‐Saxon countries. Many researchers consider single‐mother families to be at a disadvantage because of nonsupportive family policies. This paper uses data from a social context that differed hugely in this respect—the German Democratic Republic (GDR). The GDR provided extensive state support to single‐mother families and, thus, was vastly different from other countries. Based on a literature review and using Hill's family stress theory, this paper is based on the hypothesis that adolescents living in mother‐headed single‐parent families and those living with their biological parents would have near‐similar social outcomes (display of psychosomatic symptoms, perception of stress, display of delinquent behaviour, life satisfaction, academic self‐efficacy, and academic grades) and family‐related outcomes (relationship with parents and perception of family environment). Further, it was hypothesized that adolescents from stepfather families would display more negative social and family‐related outcomes when compared with respondents from the other two family types. The sample comprised 1302 adolescents (M  =  13.82 years, SD  =  1.88) who were recruited from the city of Leipzig in the year immediately following German unification, 1991. Respondents reported on measures of psychosomatic symptoms, stress, delinquency, life satisfaction, academic achievement, and family‐related variables. ANCOVAs, with a control for income adjusted for household size, indicated adolescents from single‐mother families to have very similar experiences to respondents living with their biological parents on all measures except for their assessment of family environment. Adolescents living in stepfather families reported the least favourable experiences. Results are indicative of a social context in Germany that, despite unification and the early hardships for single‐mother families, still provided these families with more opportunities than constraints.     

Reflective verbalization improves solutions—the effects of question‐based reflection in design problem solving

In this experimental study (N=60), the impact of question‐based reflective verbalization on the quality of a design solution was investigated. Participants first designed an everyday object (garden grill) using various design strategies and then either answered questions of a naive partner, where they had to verbally describe, explain, justify and evaluate their solution (experimental group), or were given a filler task (control group). After the intervention, participants continued their design. The improvement in the design quality was significantly larger for the experimental group than for the control group. Significantly more participants of the experimental group developed new principles and added new explanations of functions to their design, whereas in the control group only corrections were made. We suggest that the dialogue specific style of reflective verbalization in the experimental group is linked to a specific way of thinking which is important for solving complex problems. Copyright © 2004 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Ontogeny of manipulative behavior and nut‐cracking in young tufted capuchin monkeys (Cebus apella): a Perception–action perspective

How do capuchin monkeys learn to use stones to crack open nuts? Perception–action theory posits that individuals explore producing varying spatial and force relations among objects and surfaces, thereby learning about affordances of such relations and how to produce them. Such learning supports the discovery of tool use. We present longitudinal developmental data from semifree‐ranging tufted capuchin monkeys (Cebus apella) to evaluate predictions arising from Perception–action theory linking manipulative development and the onset of tool‐using. Percussive actions bringing an object into contact with a surface appeared within the first year of life. Most infants readily struck nuts and other objects against stones or other surfaces from 6 months of age, but percussive actions alone were not sufficient to produce nut‐cracking sequences. Placing the nut on the anvil surface and then releasing it, so that it could be struck with a stone, was the last element necessary for nut‐cracking to appear in capuchins. Young chimpanzees may face a different challenge in learning to crack nuts: they readily place objects on surfaces and release them, but rarely vigorously strike objects against surfaces or other objects. Thus the challenges facing the two species in developing the same behavior (nut‐cracking using a stone hammer and an anvil) may be quite different. Capuchins must inhibit a strong bias to hold nuts so that they can release them; chimpanzees must generate a percussive action rather than a gentle placing action. Generating the right actions may be as challenging as achieving the right sequence of actions in both species. Our analysis suggests a new direction for studies of social influence on young primates learning sequences of actions involving manipulation of objects in relation to surfaces.     

Developing research‐informed practitioners – an organisational perspective

Background: Two current trends are making it increasingly important for counsellors and psychotherapists to be more engaged with research. Evidence of effectiveness is being increasingly demanded by those who fund our therapies and also by our clients. Meanwhile therapy research is offering practicable ways for therapists to improve their practice. Therapy organisations have an opportunity, perhaps even a duty, to meet the research needs of their members. Methods: This paper reports on a survey conducted by the UK Council for Psychotherapy (UKCP) to help it plan the activities of its Research Faculty. Findings: Key findings from the survey were that the most common ways of UKCP practitioners engaging with research were through reading, discussions with colleagues and doing research. Engaging with research collaboratively with other therapists, having more time, and access to user‐friendly web‐based research resources and updates, were the factors most commonly cited as supporting practitioner engagement with research. Conversely, lack of time, difficulties accessing resources and materials and feeling not competent were the major barriers to practitioner engagement with research. Discussion: Implications for therapists, for training, and for therapy organisations are considered.     

The control of feeding behavior by an imprinted stimulus

Imprinted ducklings were trained to peck a pole using brief presentations of the imprinted stimulus as the response-contingent (reinforcing) event. Subjects were then permitted to spend extended periods with continuous access to food and the imprinted stimulus (via a pole peck). For other (control) subjects the experimental situation was restricted to either responding for the stimulus, or feeding in the absence of the stimulus. For subjects in the control conditions, both activities occurred in cyclic fashion. When, however, there was continuous opportunity to respond for the stimulus and food was available, the tendency to respond was related to the tendency to feed. Other experiments showed that independent presentations of the stimulus could initiate feeding in imprinted ducklings with no prior pairing of the stimulus with food and with no prior pole-peck training. The most consistent control over feeding, however, was exhibited by ducklings that were imprinted and also accustomed to periodic removals of the stimulus. It is concluded that in ducklings, imprinting procedures are sufficient to endow an arbitrary stimulus with the capacity to release feeding behavior.     

Researching mind wandering from a first‐person perspective

Mind wandering is an inherently inner (or first‐person) phenomenon that leaves few direct traces for third‐person enquiry. Nonetheless, psychologists often study mind wandering using third‐person (e.g., behavioral or neuronal) research methods. And although research–participants may well be asked to introspect on their mind wandering experiences (e.g., via experience‐sampling or think‐aloud techniques), such introspective self‐observations typically lack methodological rigor and are hence of only preliminary value. Here, we argue that it is a missed opportunity to not train researchers to introspect on their own mind‐wandering experiences to better understand the associated mental processes. We propose a novel approach to cultivating an educated form of introspection in the study of attentional focusing and mind wandering. Our research adds to the current theoretical understanding by explicating conditions that facilitate mind wandering (e.g., the shifting and broadening of concepts) and help find the way back to the primary task (e.g., commitment; deliberate shifts between focusing and defocusing).     

追随者主动工作行为的上行影响：内隐追随视角

主动工作行为, 作为推动组织与时俱进、健康发展的重要保障, 已成为组织行为研究领域的热点主题。然而, 以往研究在探索追随者主动工作行为的上行影响时, 却出现了悖论: 一些研究发现主动工作行为能激发领导者的积极评价, 另一些研究却指出主动工作行为会招致领导者的负面对待。为解释此矛盾现象, 基于内隐追随理论建构了一个主动工作行为的上行影响模型。该理论模型指出, 领导者的内隐追随信念决定了追随者主动工作行为究竟引发领导者的何种反应。先介绍领导者主动型内隐追随的概念与测量, 然后论证追随者主动工作行为与领导者主动型内隐追随的契合程度对领导者的影响, 在此基础上提出领导者核心情绪(高兴、紧张、沮丧与满足)的中介作用。文章为后续主动工作行为实证研究提供了一个理论分析框架。     

Cognitive control moderates early childhood temperament in predicting social behavior in 7‐year‐old children: an ERP study

Behavioral inhibition (BI) is a temperament associated with heightened vigilance and fear of novelty in early childhood, and social reticence and increased risk for anxiety problems later in development. However, not all behaviorally inhibited children develop signs of anxiety. One mechanism that might contribute to the variability in developmental trajectories is the recruitment of cognitive‐control resources. The current study measured N2 activation, an ERP (event‐related potential) associated with cognitive control, and modeled source‐space activation (LORETA; Low Resolution Brain Electromagnetic Tomography) at 7 years of age while children performed a go/no‐go task. Activation was estimated for the entire cortex and then exported for four regions of interest: ventromedial prefrontal cortex (VMPFC), ventrolateral prefrontal cortex (VLPFC), dorsal anterior cingulate cortex (dorsal ACC), and dorsal lateral prefrontal cortex (DLPFC). BI was measured in early childhood (ages 2 and 3 years). Anxiety problems and social reticence were measured at 7 years of age to ascertain stability of temperamental style. Results revealed that BI was associated with increased performance accuracy, longer reaction times, greater (more negative) N2 activation, and higher estimated dorsal ACC and DLPFC activation. Furthermore, early BI was only associated with social reticence at age 7 at higher (more negative) levels of N2 activation or higher estimated dorsal ACC or DLPFC activation. Results are discussed in the context of overcontrolled behavior contributing to social reticence and signs of anxiety in middle childhood.     

Co‐occurences of preverbal vocal behavior and motor action in early infancy

This study reports on co‐occurrence of vocal behaviors and motor actions in infants in the prelinguistic stage. Four Japanese infants were studied longitudinally from the age of 6 months to 11 months. For all the infants, a 40 min sample was coded for each monthly period. The vocalizations produced by the infants co‐occurred with their rhythmic actions with high frequency, particularly in the period preceding the onset of canonical babbling. Acoustical analysis was conducted on the vocalizations recorded before and after the period when co‐occurrence took place most frequently. Among the vocalizations recorded in the period when co‐occurrence appeared most frequently, those that co‐occurred with rhythmic action had significantly shorter syllable duration and shorter formant‐frequency transition duration compared with those that did not co‐occur with rhythmic action. The rapid transitions and short syllables were similar to patterns of duration found in mature speech. The acoustic features remained even after co‐occurrence disappeared. These findings suggest that co‐occurrence of rhythmic action and vocal behavior may contribute to the infant’s acquisition of the ability to perform the rapid glottal and articulatory movements that are indispensable for spoken language acquisition.     

Artificial grammer learning by infants: an auto‐associator perspective

This paper reviews a recent article suggesting that infants use a system of algebraic rules to learn an artificial grammar (Marcus, Vijayan, Bandi Rao & Vishton, Rule learning by seven‐month‐old infants. Science, 183(1999), 77–80). In three reported experiments, infants exhibited increased responding to auditory strings that violated the pattern of elements they were habituated to. We argue that a perceptual interpretation is more parsimonious, as well as more consistent with a broad array of habituation data, and we report successful neural network simulations that implement this lower‐level interpretation. In the discussion, we discuss how our model relates to other habituation research, and how it compares to other neural network models of habituation in general, and models of the Marcus et al. (1999) task specifically.     

The impact of perspective in visualizing health‐related behaviors: first‐person perspective increases motivation to adopt health‐related behaviors

Two experiments investigated the effects of perspective and visualization on motivation to engage in health‐related behaviors. Participants visualized themselves donating blood (Experiment 1) or quitting smoking (Experiment 2) from either the first‐person (own) or third‐person (observer's) perspective. Subsequently, motivation to engage in the visualized behavior was assessed. Contrary to previous findings showing the benefits of taking a third‐person perspective on behaviors not related to health, visualizing using the first‐person perspective had greater effects on motivation than visualizing using the third‐person perspective. Indeed, visualizing using the third‐person perspective was no more effective than not visualizing anything (Experiment 2). The theoretical implications and potential applications of these findings are discussed.