Transfer of movement sequences: bigger is better

Experiment 1 was conducted to determine if proportional transfer from "small to large" scale movements is as effective as transferring from "large to small." We hypothesize that the learning of larger scale movement will require the participant to learn to manage the generation, storage, and dissipation of forces better than when practicing smaller scale movements. Thus, we predict an advantage for transfer of larger scale movements to smaller scale movements relative to transfer from smaller to larger scale movements. Experiment 2 was conducted to determine if adding a load to a smaller scale movement would enhance later transfer to a larger scale movement sequence. It was hypothesized that the added load would require the participants to consider the dynamics of the movement to a greater extent than without the load. The results replicated earlier findings of effective transfer from large to small movements, but consistent with our hypothesis, transfer was less effective from small to large (Experiment 1). However, when a load was added during acquisition transfer from small to large was enhanced even though the load was removed during the transfer test. These results are consistent with the notion that the transfer asymmetry noted in Experiment 1 was due to factors related to movement dynamics that were enhanced during practice of the larger scale movement sequence, but not during the practice of the smaller scale movement sequence. The findings that the movement structure is unaffected by transfer direction but the movement dynamics are influenced by transfer direction is consistent with hierarchal models of sequence production.     

Scaling pigeons' choice of feeds: bigger is better.

Preferences of hungry pigeons among 10 grains and pellets were analyzed using a Thurstone scaling procedure. The recovered scales were positively correlated with size of the feed. The correlations improved when the Thurstonian assumption of equal-sized discriminal dispersions (Case V) was replaced with the assumption of proportional-sized dispersions (Case VI), as entailed by Weber's law. The correlations weakened when the experiments were conducted with the pigeons close to their free-feeding weights, where the probability of sampling alternative grains increased. In the final experiment, exposure to a large pellet shifted the preferences between two smaller pellets.     

Putting to a bigger hole: Golf performance relates to perceived size

When people are engaged in a skilled behavior, such as occurs in sports, their perceptions relate optical information to their performance. In the present research, we demonstrate the effects of performance on size perception in golfers. We found that golfers who played better judged the hole to be bigger than did golfers who did not play as well. In follow-up laboratory experiments, participants putted on a golf mat from a location near or far from the hole and then judged the size of the hole. Participants who putted from the near location perceived the hole to be bigger than did participants who putted from the far location. Our results demonstrate that perception is influenced by the perceiver’s current ability to act effectively in the environment.     

Organizational size and perceptions in a residential treatment program

Centralization of a residential mental health treatment program from three small houses to one large facility provided a naturally occurring opportunity to study the effect of organizational size on the perceptions held by clients and staff. Quantitative data were repeatedly collected on their perceptions of themselves, the organization as a whole, and subgroups within the organization during their involvement in both the small and large social contexts. Results of repeated measures analyses of variance provided considerable support for the theoretically derived hypotheses of heightened anxiety, self-impoverishment, more negative views of the psychosocial environment, and greater psychological distance in the large organizational context.     

Semantic size does not matter: "bigger" words are not recognized faster

Sereno, O'Donnell, and Sereno (2009) reported that words are recognized faster in a lexical decision task when their referents are physically large than when they are small, suggesting that "semantic size" might be an important variable that should be considered in visual word recognition research and modelling. We sought to replicate their size effect, but failed to find a significant latency advantage in lexical decision for "big" words (cf. "small" words), even though we used the same word stimuli as Sereno et al. and had almost three times as many subjects. We also examined existing data from visual word recognition megastudies (e.g., English Lexicon Project) and found that semantic size is not a significant predictor of lexical decision performance after controlling for the standard lexical variables. In summary, the null results from our lab experiment--despite a much larger subject sample size than Sereno et al.--converged with our analysis of megastudy lexical decision performance, leading us to conclude that semantic size does not matter for word recognition. Discussion focuses on why semantic size (unlike some other semantic variables) is unlikely to play a role in lexical decision.     

Effort is virtuous,but it's better to have ability: Evaluative responses to perceptions of effort and ability

Evaluative responses to imagined task outcomes were found to depend on the question asked, as well as on perceptions of effort and ability. When university students were asked when they would experience pride or shame, they indicated effort would increase pride over success and reduce shame over failure. On the other hand, when asked what type of person they would like to be they chose high ability regardless of outcome. This modified Weiner's (1972) statement of the relation of causal attributions and affective expression. Individual differences in responses to these questions related to differences in self-concept of ability. This result suggested extensions of the attributional analysis of achievement motivation.     

An analysis of perceptions from changes in optical size

The allocation of perceived size and perceived motion or displacement in depth resulting from retinal size changes (changes in the visual angle of the stimulus) was investigated in situations in which all other cues of perceived changes in distance were absent. The allocation process was represented by the size—distance invariance hypothesis (SDIH), in which, for a given change in visual angle, the perceived depth was determined only by the amount of size constancy available. The changes in perceived size and perceived distance (perceived depth) were measured by kinesthetic observer (open-loop) adjustments in five situations. These situations consisted of optical expansions or contractions presented successively or simultaneously or as a mixture of successive and simultaneous presentations. The amounts of perceived motion or perceived displacement in depth obtained by kinesthetic measures were compared with those obtained from size constancy measures as applied to the SDIH. This latter measure accounted for more of the perceived depth obtained from simultaneous and mixed situations than it did for the perceived depth from the successive situations and more for the perceived depth obtained from the expansion than from the contraction situations, whether these were simultaneous or mixed. Perceived rigidity of the stimulus (perfect size constancy) clearly was not obtained in any of the situations. Significant partial size constancy and some predictive ability of the perceived sagittal motion was found using the SDIH in all the situations except in the successively presented contraction situation, with the predictive ability from the SDIH increasing with increases in the amount of size constancy. The difference between the observer’s measures of the perceived motion or displacement in depth and the amount of perceived motion or displacement predicted from the perceptions of linear size using the SDIH is asserted to be due to a cognitive process associated with the perception of the different stimulus sizes as off-sized objects.     

Body image and size perceptions of Mexican American women

Purpose was to examine in Mexican American women the influences of age, weight, socioeconomic status and acculturation level on body image, perceptions of attractive and acceptable female shapes, and tolerance for overweight and obesity. Participants were 276 Mexican American women. Age, body mass index, socioeconomic status, and acculturation level were measured. The Figure Rating Scale was used to assess body image, preferences for body size, and perceptions of underweight to obese and acceptable body sizes. Significant effects for acculturation level and current weight were found. Women who were more Anglo oriented showed greater preference for thinner figures. As compared to normal weight women, obese women chose larger figures as ideal, realistic, attractive, and thinnest acceptable. Findings point to the impact of acculturation and obesity on body image and size perceptions. Health professionals working with Mexican Americans should consider each individual's current weight and level of acculturation.     

Word length and lexical activation: longer is better

Many models of spoken word recognition posit the existence of lexical and sublexical representations, with excitatory and inhibitory mechanisms used to affect the activation levels of such representations. Bottom-up evidence provides excitatory input, and inhibition from phonetically similar representations leads to lexical competition. In such a system, long words should produce stronger lexical activation than short words, for 2 reasons: Long words provide more bottom-up evidence than short words, and short words are subject to greater inhibition due to the existence of more similar words. Four experiments provide evidence for this view. In addition, reaction-time-based partitioning of the data shows that long words generate greater activation that is available both earlier and for a longer time than is the case for short words. As a result, lexical influences on phoneme identification are extremely robust for long words but are quite fragile and condition-dependent for short words. Models of word recognition must consider words of all lengths to capture the true dynamics of lexical activation.     

Black and white adolescent males' perceptions of ideal body size

A stratified random sample of 496 white (n =337) and black (n =159) adolescent males participated in a survey of ideal body size beliefs. Responses to the questionnaire and a series of nine female and male body size drawings were analyzed using the General Linear Model Analysis of Variance and Categorical Modeling. Using SES and race as independent variables and BMI (kg/m ²)as a covariate, black males were found to prefer a significantly heavier ideal female body size than whites (p <.0001) and also perceived that their parents, female friends, and male friends would select as ideal a significantly heavier female body size than white subjects. Black subjects were 1.9 times (O.R. = 1.88, 95% C.I. = 1.44, 2.47) more likely to select a larger ideal female hip/buttocks size and 1.7 times (O.R. = 1.72, 95% C.I. = 1.25, 2.37) more likely to choose a larger ideal female thigh size than white subjects. Our findings seem to point toward a greater approval and social acceptance of a larger body size for black females by black males. This study was conducted by the University of South Carolina School of Public Health and funded in part by ASPH-CDC Cooperative Agreement, Center for Disease Prevention and Health Promotion, Centers for Disease Control, Atlanta, Georgia.     

Chameleons bake bigger pies and take bigger pieces: Strategic behavioral mimicry facilitates negotiation outcomes

Two experiments investigated the hypothesis that strategic behavioral mimicry can facilitate negotiation outcomes. Study 1 used an employment negotiation with multiple issues, and demonstrated that strategic behavioral mimicry facilitated outcomes at both the individual and dyadic levels: Negotiators who mimicked the mannerisms of their opponents both secured better individual outcomes, and their dyads as a whole also performed better when mimicking occurred compared to when it did not. Thus, mimickers created more value and then claimed most of that additional value for themselves, though not at the expense of their opponents. In Study 2, mimicry facilitated negotiators’ ability to uncover underlying compatible interests and increased the likelihood of obtaining a deal in a negotiation where a prima facie solution was not possible. Results from Study 2 also demonstrated that interpersonal trust mediated the relationship between mimicry and deal-making. Implications for our understanding of negotiation dynamics and interpersonal coordination are discussed.     

Beauty is better pursued: Effects of attractiveness in multiple-face tracking

Using the multiple-object tracking paradigm, this study examines how spontaneous appraisal for facial beauty affects distributed attention to multiple faces in dynamic displays. Observers tracked attractive faces more effectively than unattractive faces in this task. Tracking performance was only affected by target attractiveness, suggesting an absence of appraisal for distractor attractiveness. Attractive male faces also produced stronger binding of face identity and location for female participants. Together, the results suggest that facial attractiveness was appraised during tracking even though this was task irrelevant. Contrary to the theory that multiple-object tracking is driven by encapsulated low-level vision, our results show that the content of target representation is not only penetrable by social cognition but also modulates the course of tracking operations.     

Statistical inference in behavior analysis: Experimental control is better

Statistical inference promises automatic, objective, reliable assessments of data, independent of the skills or biases of the investigator, whereas the single-subject methods favored by behavior analysts often are said to rely too much on the investigator's subjective impressions, particularly in the visual analysis of data. In fact, conventional statistical methods are difficult to apply correctly, even by experts, and the underlying logic of null-hypothesis testing has drawn criticism since its inception. By comparison, single-subject methods foster direct, continuous interaction between investigator and subject and development of strong forms of experimental control that obviate the need for statistical inference. Treatment effects are demonstrated in experimental designs that incorporate replication within and between subjects, and the visual analysis of data is adequate when integrated into such designs. Thus, single-subject methods are ideal for shaping-and maintaining-the kind of experimental practices that will ensure the continued success of behavior analysis.     

Beauty is better pursued: effects of attractiveness in multiple-face tracking

Using the multiple-object tracking paradigm, this study examines how spontaneous appraisal for facial beauty affects distributed attention to multiple faces in dynamic displays. Observers tracked attractive faces more effectively than unattractive faces in this task. Tracking performance was only affected by target attractiveness, suggesting an absence of appraisal for distractor attractiveness. Attractive male faces also produced stronger binding of face identity and location for female participants. Together, the results suggest that facial attractiveness was appraised during tracking even though this was task irrelevant. Contrary to the theory that multiple-object tracking is driven by encapsulated low-level vision, our results show that the content of target representation is not only penetrable by social cognition but also modulates the course of tracking operations.     

Perceived size of familiar objects and the theory of off-sized perceptions

In three experiments, I examined the claim (Gogel, 1969; Gogel & Newton 1969)that familiar objects viewed under reduced stimulus conditions frequently appear to be off-sized (i.e., larger or smaller.than normal). In Experiments 1 and 2, I presented images ofdifferent familiar objects, one at a time, at distances of .1. and 2 m from the observers. The images were normal-, large-, or small-sized versions of familiar objects, and the observers judged the perceived size of each object rela.tive to its familiar normal size. In Experiment 3, I presented normal-, large-, and small-sized versions of thesame familiar object at physical distances of 1 and 2 m. The pattern of size results was similar across the three experiments. In general, normal-sized objects appeared normal to small-sized at the 1-mdistance and small-sized at the 2-mdistance; small-sized objects appeared small-sized at the 1-m distance and even smaller at the 2-m distance; and large-sized objects appeared normal- to large-sized at the 1-m distance and normal- to small-sized at the 2-m distance. The distance results of Experiment 3 indicated that familiar size was an effective determinant of reported distance. These results are consistent with Gogel’s theory of off-sized perceptions and, more generally, with the claim that familiar size is not an important determinant of perceived size.     

Two is better than one, but mine is better than ours: Preschoolers’ executive function during co-play

The current study investigated how playing with another individual may influence 3- and 4-year-olds’ executive function in the Less-Is-More (LIM) task, where children point to the tray with the smaller amount of treats so as to obtain the larger amount of treats in the other tray. In Experiment 1, 35 Singaporean children were tested with a self version and a co-player-split version of the LIM task. Results showed that children appeared to be less impulsive when playing with a co-player than when playing individually. Experiment 2 further investigated how the intention of the co-player, collective profit oriented versus individual profit oriented, may influence children’s executive function. In total, 96 children were tested with a self version, a co-player-share version, and a co-player-opponent version. Results showed that the co-playing facilitation effect appeared in only the co-player-opponent version. Together, the results of the current study showed that when preschoolers play with an individual who shares a common goal with them, they may become more efficient in executive control.     

Relationships between perceptions of organizational size and the organizational choice process

Expectancy theory concepts were used to predict (a) the attractiveness of, (b) the amount of effort directed toward entering, and (c) the eventual choice of a job in relatively big and small work organizations. It was found, among a group of graduating seniors from a technical college, that antecedent perceptions regarding organizational size (expectancy, valence, instrumentality) were significantly related to the relative attractiveness of different-sized organizations and the number of job interviews taken with relatively big and small companies. In addition, economically tied extrinsic outcomes were seen as more readily attainable in big organizations, whereas certain intrinsic outcomes were perceived to be more easily obtained in small organizations.     

Vertical-horizontal illusion: One eye is better than two

The vertical-horizontal illusion is the tendency for observers to overestimate the length of a vertical line relative to a horizontal line that has the same length. One explanation of this illusion is that the visual field is elongated in the horizontal direction, and that the vertical-horizontal illusion is a kind of framing effect (Künnapas, 1957a, 1957b, 1957c). Since the monocular visual field is less asymmetric than the combined visual field, this theory predicts that the illusion should be reduced with monocular presentation. This prediction was tested in five experiments, in which the vertical-horizontal illusion was examined in a variety of situations—including observers seated upright versus reclined 90°, monocular presentation with the dominant versus the nondominant eye, viewing in the dark versus in the light, and viewing with asymmetrical frames of reference. The illusion was reliably reduced with monocular presentation under conditions that affected the asymmetry of the phenomenal visual field.     

Resume evaluations and cosmetics use: When more is not better

Physical appearance is an integral component of self-presentation in all social situations, including that of applying for a job. This project investigated the relationship between employment evaluations of women and one aspect of their appearance under the individual's control—the use of varying degrees of cosmetics. Cosmetics use was found to be positively correlated with perceived attractiveness, femininity, and sexiness. Based on resume evaluations, however, cosmetics use had a negative effect on the expected performance of female applicants for a gender-typed (secretary) position, but no effect on the expected performance of female applicants for a nongender-typed (accountant) position. Makeup thus appears to strengthen sex role stereotypes associated with traditionally feminine jobs.We gratefully acknowledge the assistance of Merle Norman Cosmetics and John B. Wheat, photographer, for their assistance in preparing the stimulus pictures. Partial support for writing this paper was provided by a Spurgeon Bell Fellowship to the second author. A previous version of this paper was presented at the Academy of Management Annual Meeting, Dallas, Texas, August 1983.