Racial and Sexual Objectification of Asian American Women: Associations with Trauma Symptomatology,Body Image Concerns,and Disordered Eating

ABSTRACT

Sexism and racism often imbue Asian American women’s socialization experiences. Operating from an objectification theory framework, the present article (a) examines the conceptual relevance of racial and sexual objectification in describing Asian American women’s oppressive experiences, (b) reviews empirical studies linking racial and sexual objectification with Asian American women’s mental health issues, specifically in the areas of trauma symptomatology, body image concerns, and disordered eating, (c) offers critiques of existing research and points to directions for future research, and (d) discusses clinical implications for therapy work with Asian American women based on available literature. In essence, the present review highlights how Asian American women may experience body image concerns, disordered eating, and trauma symptomatology through processes ethnoculturally and socioculturally distinct to them via experiences of racial and sexual objectification. This review calls for a more nuanced and precise understanding of Asian American women’s racial and sexual objectification experiences and associated mental health difficulties. This understanding can only occur through increased empirical research and clinical practice, as informed by feminist scholarship situated in a culturally expanded objectification framework.     

Body image and eating disorder symptoms in sexual minority men: A test and extension of objectification theory

On the basis of integrating objectification theory research with research on body image and eating problems among sexual minority men, the present study examined relations among sociocultural and psychological correlates of eating disorder symptoms with a sample of 231 sexual minority men. Results of a path analysis supported tenets of objectification theory with the sample. Specifically, findings were consistent with relations posited in objectification theory among sexual objectification experiences, internalization of cultural standards of attractiveness, body surveillance, body shame, and eating disorder symptoms. Within this set of positive relations, internalization of cultural standards of attractiveness partially mediated the link of sexual objectification experiences with body surveillance; body surveillance partially mediated the relation of internalization with body shame; and body shame partially mediated the relation of body surveillance with eating disorder symptoms. In addition to these relations, internalized homophobia was related to greater eating disorder symptoms through body shame, and recalled childhood harassment for gender nonconformity was linked with eating disorder symptoms through a positive series of relations involving internalization of cultural standards of attractiveness, body surveillance, and body shame.     

Testing a Moderated Mediation Model of Objectification Theory among Black Women in the United States: The Role of Protective Factors

Recent studies find that Black women experience rates of eating pathology and body dissatisfaction comparable to those of White women. Abundant research suggests that objectification theory could help explain the development and maintenance of eating disorder (ED) symptoms among diverse women. However, research on the applicability of objectification theory to ED symptoms in Black women is equivocal. Specifically, some have suggested that body surveillance might operate differently for Black women. Thus, the current study examined ethnic-racial identity (ERI) commitment and body appreciation as moderators of the mediated associations among body surveillance, body shame, and ED symptoms. Black women (n?=?175) in the United States completed measures of body image, ERI commitment, and ED symptoms. Consistent with objectification theory, body shame mediated the association between body surveillance and ED symptoms. Contrary to our hypothesis, ERI commitment did not moderate the link between body surveillance and body shame. However, body appreciation was a significant moderator, such that the strength of the relation between body surveillance and ED symptoms via body shame was weakened at high levels of body appreciation. Future work should consider interventions that foster body appreciation in Black women.

     

Body image across the life span in adult women: the role of self-objectification

This study aimed to investigate women's body image across the entire life span from within the theoretical perspective provided by objectification theory (B. L. Fredrickson & T.-A. Roberts, 1997). In a cross-sectional study, a sample of 322 women ranging in age from 20 to 84 years completed a questionnaire measuring body dissatisfaction, self-objectification, and its proposed consequences. Although body dissatisfaction remained stable across the age range, self-objectification, habitual body monitoring, appearance anxiety, and disordered eating symptomatology all significantly decreased with age. Self-objectification was found to mediate the relationship between age and disordered eating symptomatology. It was concluded that objectification theory helps clarify the processes involved in the changes in body image that occur with age.     

The UCLA Body Project I: Gender and Ethnic Differences in Self-Objectification and Body Satisfaction Among 2,206 Undergraduates

This study examined whether objectification theory is useful for understanding gender, body mass, and ethnic differences in body satisfaction among 2,206 US undergraduates who completed a body image survey. Women reported lower body satisfaction than men (d?=?.37) and this was true across the majority of the BMI continuum. Very slender men, however, were less satisfied than very slender women who approached the female thin-ideal. Differences in body satisfaction among White, Asian, and Hispanic participants were small to moderate (ds?=?.18 to .45). Consistent with the prediction that self-objectification has particularly negative effects on women who deviate from the slender White ideal, the association between body dissatisfaction and appearance surveillance was strongest for heavier and minority women.     

Connecting theory to fat talk: Body dissatisfaction mediates the relationships between weight discrepancy,upward comparison,body surveillance,and fat talk

The fat talk literature is meager in terms of offering theoretical explanations for women's self-disparaging communication. The research presented here sought to establish a relationship between three prominent body image theories – self-discrepancy theory, social comparison theory, and objectification theory – and fat talk by proposing body dissatisfaction as a potential mediating mechanism. Young adult women (N = 201) completed an online questionnaire. As predicted, results revealed that body dissatisfaction significantly mediated the relationships between weight discrepancy, upward comparison, body surveillance and fat talk. Effect size estimates indicated that the size of each indirect effect was medium in magnitude.     

Empowerment and Powerlessness: A Closer Look at the Relationship Between Feminism, Body Image and Eating Disturbance

Objectification Theory (Frederickson & Roberts, 1997) states that women’s bodies are viewed as objects to be evaluated and this societal objectification may lead to self-objectification when women view their own bodies as objects. The current study theorized that empowerment is an important factor in reducing self-objectification. Although empowerment is a central tenet of feminist theory, this study is the first to examine the relationship between empowerment, feminism, and body image and eating disturbance. Participants were 276 women from the southeastern USA. Results demonstrated that empowerment was more predictive of body image and eating disturbance than was feminism. Development of a validated empowerment scale specific to body image and eating disturbance may be useful for future research, prevention, and treatment efforts.     

The drive for muscularity in men: Media influences and objectification theory

Presently, objectification theory has yielded mixed results when utilized to explain body image concerns in men. An online survey assessing internalization of media ideals, self-objectification, body surveillance, body shame, the drive for muscularity, and body mass index (BMI) was completed by 244 predominantly college-aged males. Path analyses were used to investigate relationships among these variables where it was hypothesized that objectification variables would mediate the relationship between internalization of media ideals and the drive for muscularity. Internalization of media ideals was the strongest predictor of the drive for muscularity, followed by BMI, though variables of objectification theory had no impact on the drive for muscularity contrary to hypotheses. The results suggest that objectification theory may not be applicable to men as it is currently measured.     

Social Responsiveness and Objectification: The Moderating Roles of Serotonin Transporter and Serotonin Receptor 2A Genotypes in an Objectification Theory Model of Disordered Eating

Feminist scholars have called for gender researchers to consider gene-environment interactions for gender-imbalanced disorders (Salk and Hyde Psychology of Women Quarterly, 36, 395–411, 2012). Responding to these calls, the present study integrates objectification theory (Fredrickson and Roberts Psychology of Women Quarterly, 21, 173–206, 1997) and genetic research. In the tested model, objectification experiences are associated with disordered eating through body surveillance and body shame, and serotonin transporter (SLC6A4) genotypes (5-HTTLPR and rs25531), serotonin 2A receptor SNP genotypes (HTR2A rs6311), and the epistatic interaction between those genotypes function as moderators. U.S. undergraduate women (n?=?526) completed self-reports of objectification, body surveillance, body shame, and disordered eating and donated buccal cells for genetic analyses. The association between objectification and disordered eating was mediated by body shame, but not body surveillance. The paths from objectification to both body surveillance and body shame were moderated by genotypes. The indirect effect of objectification on disordered eating through body shame was only present for SLC6A4 L′ and rs6311 G homozygotes. Our results are consistent with previous evidence that serotonin system genetic variation is associated with disordered eating risk. They provide evidence of a non-deterministic genetic effect that is context-dependent and subtle. These findings also reinforce efforts to develop personalized prevention and treatment approaches for eating disorders.

     

IN DEFENSE OF THE BODY: THE EFFECT OF MORTALITY SALIENCE ON FEMALE BODY OBJECTIFICATION

Previous research has illustrated the negative psychological consequences of female body objectification. The present study explores how female body objectification may serve as a defense against unconscious existential fears. Drawing from terror management theory, an experiment was designed to test the potential functionality of female body objectification. Men and women were primed to think about either their own mortality or an aversive control topic, and levels of body objectification were then assessed for both self- and other (women)-objectification. Findings supported the hypothesis that priming mortality would increase both self- and other-objectification among women, and self-objectification among those who derive self-esteem from their body. Implications for this research are discussed.     

A TEST OF OBJECTIFICATION THEORY WITH LESBIAN WOMEN

This study extends research on objectification theory as it applies to eating disorder symptomatology by examining whether its tenets generalize to women identifying as lesbian. Lesbian women ( N = 181) and a comparison sample of heterosexual women ( N = 196) completed measures of objectification theory constructs (interpersonal sexual objectification, body surveillance, body shame, interoceptive awareness, disordered eating). The model of objectification theory was tested separately for lesbian and heterosexual participants. Path analyses revealed that this model provided a poor fit to the data for the lesbian sample, whereas it provided an excellent fit to the data for the heterosexual sample. Based on the data from the lesbian participants, an exploratory model was evaluated. Overall, findings suggested that the interrelationships among the objectification theory constructs were different and more complex for the lesbian participants than for the heterosexual participants.     

Social Comparison and the ‘Circle of Objectification’

The purpose of this study was to test a new theoretical model that integrates self-objectification, objectification of others, and social comparison as contributors to the development and maintenance of body image disturbance and disordered eating behavior. Within the new theoretical model, self-objectification, objectification of others, and social comparison are conceptualized as a self-perpetuating cycle, rather than as processes that occur independently of one another. Measures of self-objectification, objectification of others, social comparison, body shame, body dissatisfaction, and eating disorder symptomatology were completed by 549 female students between the ages of 18 and 30?years from a large university in the southeastern United States. Structural equation modeling with nested model comparisons was used to examine the fit of the new theoretical model relative to less complex models which contain only relationships which have received previous attention in the research literature (e.g., the relationship between self-objectification and body shame). Results indicated that the new theoretical model demonstrates good fit for the data and that the fit of this model is significantly better than the original model suggested by the literature. This model also brings together two distinct lines of research and offers a more complete understanding of processes underlying women’s body image and eating behavior. Implications for clinical work as well as theory and measurement are discussed.     

Enhancing quality of life in medical populations: a vision for body image assessment and rehabilitation as standards of care

This article presents a vision and framework for establishing body image assessment and rehabilitation as a standard of care for patients with medical disorders. Making this vision a reality depends upon: (1) a thorough understanding of the body image construct; (2) application of many new forms of body image assessment; (3) refined understanding of body image disorder and dysfunction in the context of medical conditions; and (4) a clear plan to implement and evaluate prevention, rehabilitation, and treatment programs. Applying the many important developments that have occurred in body image theory, assessment, and intervention over the past decade holds promise for enhancing the quality of life of many individuals with medical conditions.     

His biceps become him: a test of objectification theory's application to drive for muscularity and propensity for steroid use in college men

Men's body image problems may manifest as an unhealthy drive for muscularity and propensity to use anabolic-androgenic steroids (AAS). Aspects of objectification theory were integrated with literature on men's drive for muscularity and AAS use to identify correlates of these problems. The resultant model was tested with path analyses of data from 270 college men. First, consistent with prior research on objectification theory, results indicated that body surveillance partially mediated the link of internalization of cultural standards of attractiveness with body shame. Second, positive outcome expectation for AAS use partially mediated the link of drive for muscularity with intention to use AAS. Third, drive for muscularity partially mediated the links of internalization with outcome expectation for AAS use and intention to use AAS. Finally, outcome expectation for AAS use was an additional partial mediator of the link of internalization with intention to use AAS. Body surveillance and body shame did not have unique direct or mediated relations with drive for muscularity or AAS variables. These findings point to internalization of cultural standards of attractiveness as the nexus of overlap between the objectification theory variables and men's drive for muscularity and propensity to use AAS.     

Self-objectification,body self-consciousness during sexual activities,and sexual satisfaction in college women

Few studies examine the mechanisms that link body image to sexual satisfaction in women. Using the tenets of objectification theory, this study investigated the relationships between body surveillance, body shame, body self-consciousness during sexual activities, and sexual satisfaction in an ethnically diverse sample of American female college students (N = 368), while controlling for relationship status and body mass index. Results based on self-report measures of these constructs suggested that body shame and body self-consciousness during sexual activity were negatively correlated with sexual satisfaction. Additionally, path analysis indicated that body surveillance predicted increased body self-consciousness during sexual activity, partially mediated by body shame. Body self-consciousness, in turn, predicted decreased sexual satisfaction. Overall, study findings highlight the negative consequences of body image concerns for women's sexual satisfaction.     

男同性恋的身体意象：特点与理论分析

对男同性恋身体意象的研究有近30年的历史。男同性恋比男异性恋更容易出现负面身体意象、身体不满意和进食障碍等。男同性恋追求瘦而有肌肉的理想身体。针对这些特点, 研究者提出一些理论假设进行解释, 包括性客观化理论、内化同性恋污名、性别角色假设、进化心理学假设和AIDS/HIV假设等。未来研究要进行整合的和多样化的研究取向, 方法上采用以网络调查为主的定量研究和以现象学分析为主的定性研究。最后, 国内研究要更注重文化特异性。     

Body Image and Disordered Eating in Adolescent Girls and Boys: A Test of Objectification Theory

This study aimed to test components of objectification theory in a large sample of adolescent girls and boys. Participants were 714 Australian adolescents (382 boys, 332 girls) ranging in age from 12 to 16 years who completed questionnaire measures of body surveillance, body shame, appearance anxiety and disordered eating. Although it was found that girls displayed higher levels of body surveillance, body shame, appearance anxiety and disordered eating than boys, the model proposed by objectification theory was largely supported for both girls and boys. It was concluded that objectification theory appears applicable to adolescents of both genders.     

Integrating Social Comparison Theory and Self-Esteem within Objectification Theory to Predict Women’s Disordered Eating

This study integrated social comparison theory and self-esteem into the objectification theory framework to broaden our understanding of sexual objectification as it relates to body shame and disordered eating. Women (N?=?274) from a Midwestern U.S. college completed measures of sexual objectification via appearance feedback, body surveillance, body shame, body comparison, self-esteem, and disordered eating. Structural equation modeling indicated that this expanded model fit the data. Appearance feedback predicted body surveillance, body comparison, self-esteem and—unexpectedly—disordered eating. Body surveillance, body comparison, and self-esteem predicted body shame. Furthermore, hierarchical moderated regression revealed that body comparison moderated the body surveillance—disordered eating link; women who frequently monitored their body and compared it to others’ bodies reported the highest disordered eating.     

Tests of Objectification Theory in Gay, Lesbian, and Heterosexual Community Samples: Mixed Evidence for Proposed Pathways

Objectification theory (Fredrickson and Roberts 1997) proposes that women are especially vulnerable to eating disordered behavior when they live in cultures in which their bodies are a constant focus of evaluation. The current study examined whether predictions of objectification theory involving the associations among sexual objectification, body surveillance, body shame, and eating disordered behavior were supported in groups that varied by both gender and sexual orientation. Adults from a U.S. community sample in the Chicago area (92 heterosexual women; 102 heterosexual men; 87 gay men; and 99 lesbian women) completed self-report measures of these constructs. Results suggest that group differences in experiences of sexual objectification and body surveillance may partially explain gender and sexual orientation-based differences in eating disordered behavior.