Patterns of Physical and Relational Aggression in a School-Based Sample of Boys and Girls

The current study investigated the patterns of aggressive behavior displayed in a sample of 282 students in the 4th through 7th grades (M age = 11.28; SD = 1.82). Using cluster analyses, two distinct patterns of physical aggression emerged for both boys and girls with one aggressive cluster showing mild levels of reactive aggression and one group showing high levels of both reactive and proactive aggression. Both aggressive clusters showed problems with anger dysregulation, impulsivity, thrill and adventure seeking, positive outcome expectancies for aggression, and higher rates of bullying. However, the combined cluster was most severe on all of these variables and only the combined aggressive group differed from non-aggressive students on their level of callous-unemotional traits. Similar patterns of findings emerged for relational aggression but only for girls.     

Gender-Role Cognition in Three-Year-Old Boys and Girls

Although the multidimensionality of gender roles has been well established, few researchers have investigated male and female roles separately. Because of the substantial differences in the ways male and female roles are portrayed in our culture, boys and girls may think and learn about these roles differently. The male role is more clearly defined, more highly valued, and more salient than the female role; thus, children's cognitions about these two roles may be expected to differ. The present study addressed the question of whether there is sex-typical variation in gender labeling, gender-role knowledge, and schematicity. Participants were 120 families; 15% were from minority ethnic groups, and 17% were single-parent families; 25% of the parents had a high school education or less. Results indicated that at 36 months of age, boys were less able to label gender and less knowledgeable about gender roles than were girls. Boys' knew more about male stereotypes than female stereotypes, whereas girls knew considerably more than boys about the female role and as much as boys about the male role. Boys and girls were found to be similar in gender schematicity. Traditionality of parental attitudes regarding child-rearing and maternal employment were not strongly related to children's gender cognition.     

Children's Beliefs About Violating Gender Norms: Boys Shouldn't Look Like Girls,and Girls Shouldn't Act Like Boys

This research examined 3- to 11-year-old children's knowledge of and beliefs about violating several gender norms (e.g., toys, play styles, occupations, parental roles, hairstyles, and clothing) as compared to social and moral norms. Knowledge of the norms and understanding that norm violations were possible increased with age. The children's evaluations of violations of gender norms varied from item to item. Violations concerning becoming a parent of the other gender were devalued in both boys and girls, whereas most toy and occupation violations were not especially devalued in either. Boys with feminine hairstyles or clothing were evaluated more negatively than girls with masculine hairstyles or clothing. On the other hand, girls who played in masculine play styles were devalued relative to boys who played in feminine styles. Evaluations of norm violations were not consistently related to age.     

Sociocultural Influences on Body Image Concerns and Body Change Strategies Among Indigenous and Non-Indigenous Australian Adolescent Girls and Boys

Sociocultural messages about the ideal body build have been studied predominantlyamong White adolescent girls. In the current study we examined the relationships between perceived sociocultural influences, body image concerns, and body change strategies among 47 (22 boys and 25 girls) Indigenous Australian adolescents. These relationships were compared to those from 47 non-Indigenous adolescents (predominantly from an Anglo-Saxon background), who were matched on gender, age, and school grade. Overall, the sociocultural influences were found to be associated with body image concerns and body change strategies among both cultural groups. The only exception was that the sociocultural influences were not associated with the Indigenous girls’ levels of body dissatisfaction or body image importance. These findings are discussed in relation to past studies of White and Black girls.     

Sociocultural Predictors of Physical Appearance Concerns among Adolescent Girls and Young Women from China

This research assessed the extent to which sociocultural predictors of body dissatisfaction implicated in Western studies extend to the prediction of physical appearance concerns among young women and adolescent girls in Southwest China. In Study 1, 408 Chinese university-age women completed measures of fatness concern (FC), facial appearance concerns (FAC), sociocultural influence (i.e., appearance pressure, comparison, teasing), and demographics. In hierarchical regression analyses, appearance pressure and comparison predicted both FC and FAC, independent of other factors. In Study 2, effects of appearance pressure and comparison were replicated among middle school (n = 346) and high school (n = 563) girls. Together, findings suggest that appearance pressure and social comparison correspond with specific body image concerns of young females in China.     

Compliance and Problem-Solving Competence in Girls and Boys

The problem-solving abilities of 4- and 5-year old children (N = 208) were assessed to test the hypothesis that high levels of compliance are negatively related to problem solving. Problem-solving competence was examined with a task-specific measure and a standardized measure of general problem-solving performance. Low compliant children performed better on both measures. The role of compliance in the cognitive development of girls and boys is discussed.     

Individual, Social, and Behavioral Factors Associated with Co-Occurring Conduct Problems and Callous-Unemotional Traits

Conduct problems (CP) and callous-unemotional (CU) traits can have a long-lasting negative impact into adulthood. Importantly, among youth with CP, those high on CU traits engage in a more severe, aggressive, and persistent pattern of antisocial behavior. The current study investigates the co-occurrence between CP and CU traits among a large sample of Greek-Cypriot adolescents (N?=?1,674; 50.1 % girls). Five distinct groups were identified with Latent Profile Analysis: low risk (48.7 %), average risk (33.8 %), co-occurring high CP-high CU (5.4 %), high CP-low CU (5.2 %), and low CP-high CU (6.9 %). Although more boys were identified in the higher risk groups, boys and girls within each group were not differentiated on levels of CP or CU traits during early adolescence. Youth in the identified groups were compared on early (Mean age?=?12.12) and middle (Mean age?=?14.02) adolescence individual and contextual factors. Youth with high CP-high CU were at higher risk for behavioral (bullying and substance use), individual (inattention, impulsivity, narcissism), and contextual (low family-support) problems compared to youth in the high CP-low CU and low CP-high CU groups, providing evidence that the combination of CP and CU traits might constitute a pathological group. These findings demonstrate the usefulness of sub-typing CP based on CU traits for the forthcoming fifth edition of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual. Additional novel findings suggested that adolescents scoring high on CP, irrespective of CU, were not differentiated on hyperactivity, victimization, and anxiety/depression, and adolescents scoring high on CU traits, with or without CP, reported similar low levels of self-esteem and peer and family social-support.     

Cognitive Load Differentially Impacts Response Control in Girls and Boys with ADHD

Children with attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) consistently show impaired response control, including deficits in response inhibition and increased intrasubject variability (ISV) compared to typically-developing (TD) children. However, significantly less research has examined factors that may influence response control in individuals with ADHD, such as task or participant characteristics. The current study extends the literature by examining the impact of increasing cognitive demands on response control in a large sample of 81children with ADHD (40 girls) and 100 TD children (47 girls), ages 8–12 years. Participants completed a simple Go/No-Go (GNG) task with minimal cognitive demands, and a complex GNG task with increased cognitive load. Results showed that increasing cognitive load differentially impacted response control (commission error rate and tau, an ex-Gaussian measure of ISV) for girls, but not boys, with ADHD compared to same-sex TD children. Specifically, a sexually dimorphic pattern emerged such that boys with ADHD demonstrated higher commission error rate and tau on both the simple and complex GNG tasks as compared to TD boys, whereas girls with ADHD did not differ from TD girls on the simple GNG task, but showed higher commission error rate and tau on the complex GNG task. These findings suggest that task complexity influences response control in children with ADHD in a sexually dimorphic manner. The findings have substantive implications for the pathophysiology of ADHD in boys versus girls with ADHD.     

Callous-Unemotional Traits as Unique Prospective Risk Factors for Substance Use in Early Adolescent Boys and Girls

Youth with elevated conduct disorder (CD) symptoms who also have callous-unemotional (CU) traits exhibit more antisocial behavior than youth without CU traits. However, evidence regarding whether CU traits increase risk of substance use over and above CD symptoms, and whether these associations differ for boys and girls, is scarce. Using the Developmental Pathways Project sample of 521 middle school students, we examined whether adolescent- and parent-reported CU traits measured in 6th grade prospectively predicted the onset and recurrence of substance use and use-related impairment by 9th grade. We also examined the degree to which CU traits uniquely predicted substance use and impairment over and above CD symptoms, as well as whether gender moderated these associations. Results indicated that adolescent-reported CU traits increased the likelihood of substance use and impairment onset and recurrence by 9th grade. Analyses revealed that CD symptoms accounted for prospective associations between adolescent-reported CU and substance use, but gender moderated these associations. Boys with elevated CU traits and CD symptoms were not more likely to report alcohol use onset or recurrence, but they were at highest risk of recurrent marijuana use, use of both alcohol and marijuana, and use-related impairment by 9th grade. Girls with low CU traits and high CD symptoms were most likely to report onset and recurrent use of alcohol, as well as recurrent marijuana use, use of both substances and impairment. Study findings highlight the importance of accounting for CD symptoms and gender when examining links between CU traits and substance use in early adolescence.     

Self-Esteem and Negative Affect as Moderators of Sociocultural Influences on Body Dissatisfaction,Strategies to Decrease Weight,and Strategies to Increase Muscles Among Adolescent Boys and Girls

The study was conducted to examine the impact of sociocultural influences and the moderating role of self-esteem and negative affect on body dissatisfaction and body change strategies for both adolescent boys and girls. Surveys designed to assess body dissatisfaction, body change strategies to decrease weight and increase muscles, perceived sociocultural pressures to lose weight and increase muscles, self-esteem and negative affect were administered to 587 boys and 598 girls aged between 11 and 15 years. The majority of respondents were from Anglo-Australian backgrounds (83%) with the remainder being from Asian and European non-English-speaking backgrounds. The sociocultural influences were found to significantly predict body dissatisfaction and body change strategies for both boys and girls. However, in the case of boys, self-esteem was found to moderate the impact of the sociocultural influences in predicting body change strategies. It was primarily the boys with low self-esteem who were more affected by the sociocultural pressures whereas the girls were affected independently of their self-esteem. Negative affect was also found to play a moderating role on some of the sociocultural influences in predicting strategies to increase muscles. Both boys and girls with higher levels of negative affect were more likely to be affected by sociocultural messages directed at increasing muscles. The results from the present study demonstrate that as well as examining the direct influence of sociocultural pressures, it is also important to examine how these may be moderated by self-esteem and negative affect.     

Few Preschool Boys and Girls with ADHD are Well-Adjusted During Adolescence

To estimate the prevalence of being well-adjusted in adolescence, boys and girls with (n = 96) and without (n = 126) attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) were assessed seven times in eight years starting when they were 4–6 years of age. Symptoms of ADHD, ODD/CD, and depression/anxiety in addition to social skills and social preference were gathered using multiple methods and informants. Being well-adjusted was defined by surpassing thresholds in at least four of the five domains. At the 7- and 8-year follow-up, when youth were 11–14 years old, probands were significantly less likely to be well-adjusted relative to age- and ethnicity-matched control children. Only a minority of children with ADHD was well-adjusted in adolescence when emotional, behavioral, and social domains were considered simultaneously. Even when their ADHD symptoms improved over time, most probands exhibited significant impairment 7–8 years after their initial assessment.     

Behavior Problems and Peer Rejection in Preschool Boys and Girls

The authors tested the hypothesis that deviant behaviors within a preschool peer group would be linked with peer rejection, irrespective of child gender. Seventy-six children, aged 3 to 5 years, participated. Teachers rated children's behavior on the Child Adaptive Behavior Inventory, and children provided sociometric ratings. For a subsample of children (n = 47), observers coded aggressive, noncompliant, and withdrawn behavior using a time-sampling system. For both boys and girls, noncompliance, hyperactivity, and social withdrawal were associated with peer rejection; overt aggression was associated with peer rejection for boys, but not for girls. Analysis revealed that approximately half of the variance in sociometric and teacher ratings of peer rejection was accounted for by aggression and social withdrawal for both boys and girls. The results suggest that the association between behavior problems and peer rejection emerges at a very early age.     

Sociocultural Influences on Body Image Among Adolescent Boys From Fiji,Tonga, and Australia

The current study examined the factors related to body‐image concerns among adolescent boys in Fiji and Tonga. This qualitative study determined the impact of messages from family, peers, and the media on body image among 24 adolescent boys from the following cultural groups: Indo‐Fijian, Indigenous Fijian, Tongan, and Australian boys of European heritage. Boys from Fiji and Tonga had a high focus on their bodies. Fijian and Tongan boys also demonstrated high levels of body dissatisfaction and wanted to be bigger. Tongan and Indigenous Fijian boys evidenced high levels of sociocultural pressures. Indo‐Fijian and Australian boys received few messages about their bodies. Boys from Fiji and Tonga appear to have strong pressures to achieve a large, muscular body.     

The Measurement of Negative After-Images in First-Grade Boys and Girls

Three days prior to sexual integration of a residential school for delinquent adolescent females, 85 students participated in a survey of attitudes towards boys. Factor analysis of the 21 item survey yielded eight factors. The Ss also completed a semantic differential (SD) for “myself,” “boy,” and “girl.” Ss were assigned to one of three gender-identity groups for male identification, female identification, and uncertain identification based on SD profile matching. A second survey was conducted two months after sexual integration of the school. Data were collected on 49 of the original sample. Results showed significant changes for the male identity group toward rejection of the male role. The uncertain identity group increased identification with the feminine role. As anticipated, no changes appeared for the female identity group. Findings suggest that sexual integration of adolescent reform institutions is effective in avoiding sex-role diffusion.     

Parental, Behavioral, and Psychological Factors Associated with Cigarette Smoking among Secondary School Students in Nanjing, China

We designed this study to assess parental, behavioral, and psychological factors associated with tobacco use among Chinese adolescents. The data were collected from 995 middle school students in Nanjing, China. Both smoking experimentation and current smoking (smoking in the past 30 days) were assessed among the study sample. Psychosocial measures include family structure, problem behaviors, social influence of smoking (both parental and friends’ approval of smoking), depressive symptoms, social alienation, self-esteem, parental monitoring (social monitoring and academic monitoring) and parenting style (responsiveness and demandingness). Among the study sample (mean age 15.16 years and 50% females), 24% ever smoked and 15% smoked in the past 30 days. Advanced age, male gender, low family SES, low school performance and low educational aspiration were associated with both smoking experimentation and current smoking. Depressive symptoms, social alienation, low self-esteem, low social and academic monitoring, problem behaviors, low maternal and paternal responsiveness, peer smoking, parent smoking, and parental and friends’ approval of smoking were positively associated with current smoking among Chinese adolescents. Future tobacco use prevention efforts among Chinese adolescents need to consider the parental, behavioral, and psychological correlates identified in the current study.     

Depression,Sociocultural Factors,and African American Women

The authors discuss depression in African American women from a sociocultural perspective, including aspects of oppression and racism that affect symptom manifestation. The authors highlight John Henryism as a coping mechanism, the history and continuing role of the African American church as a safe haven, and strategies for culturally competent practice. Los autores discuten la depresión en mujeres Afroamericanas desde una perspectiva sociocultural, incluyendo los aspectos de opresión y racismo que afectan a la manifestación de los síntomas. Los autores destacan el John Henry‐ismo como mecanismo de afrontamiento, la historia y el papel constante de la iglesia Afroamericana como refugio seguro, y las estrategias para una práctica culturalmente competente.     

Activity Level and Sex-Stereotyped Toy Choice in Toddler Boys and Girls

In the first study, the motor activity level and vigor of play of 52 toddlers was assessed as they played with a set of sex-role stereotyped and neutral toys. Boys and girls showed the same level of activity, and both were significantly more active when playing with stereotypically masculine toys. In the second study, 27 toddlers were observed playing with toys defined as potentially eliciting high, medium, or low activity within the masculine, feminine, and neutral categories. Again, boys and girls did not differ in overall activity level. All children preferred toys that allowed moderate to high activity, but given this preference, they selected toys stereotyped for their own gender above those stereotyped for the other gender.     

Science Conversations during Family Book Reading with Girls and Boys in Two Cultural Communities

ABSTRACT

Family conversations about science-related topics, including those involving storybook reading, may set the stage for children’s interest in science. We investigated how parents from two cultural backgrounds engaged in science talk while reading a science-related storybook with their preschool-aged daughters and sons. Consistent with our commitment to avoid deficit thinking, our questions focus on variability within a group of European-American parents and a group of Latine parents, rather than comparing groups. Our sample included 38 European-American families (20 girls), and 27 Latine families (12 girls) from three coastal regions of California, varying in educational background. Our results indicate that parents from both groups read most of the text, had conversations beyond the text, and specifically engaged in science talk when elaborating beyond the book with their children. European-American parents with 12–16 years of schooling engaged in science talk more with boys than with girls, whereas the science talk of European-American parents with more than 16 years of schooling did not differ by children’s gender. Latine parents did not differ significantly in their science talk by years of parents’ schooling or by children’s gender. Results are discussed as they relate to current conversations about early socialization of science interest and engagement for boys and girls in diverse families.