Mild functional decline and driving performance of older drivers without a diagnosed dementia: Study of leukoaraiosis and cognitive function

Motor vehicle collisions involving older drivers have increased and become an important social issue. It is known that the decline of cognitive function, including dementia, affects driving performance. A series of studies using the Mini-Mental State Examination (MMSE) and other tests of dementia have attempted to prevent motor vehicle collisions by identifying as early as possible older drivers who may be unable to maintain their driving performance. Further, the performance of older drivers may deteriorate even if they do not have a diagnosis of dementia. Therefore we focused on the relationship between cognitive functioning assessed by the MMSE and diagnosis of leukoaraiosis (LA), or changes in the cerebral white matter, with different aspects of driving behavior resulting from aging. Qualified driving instructors evaluated participants’ driving behaviors on an outdoor driving course at a driving school. Visual search duration and angle at intersections were obtained by wearable wireless sensors. Vehicle speed and minimum vehicle speed were recorded from vehicle speed pulse signals. Duration of signaling and visual searches at unsignalized intersections were recorded using an in-vehicle camera. We assessed instructors’ evaluations and the scores on two instruments to evaluate the effects of MMSE scores and the grade of LA on driving performance were verified. The results suggest that lower MMSE scores and higher LA grade can predict some aspects of poor driving performance in older drivers before they experience dementia or an evident decline in cognitive functioning. Based on these results, we discuss countermeasures that may prevent motor vehicle collisions involving older drivers.     

Situation Awareness: Its proficiency amongst older and younger drivers,and its usefulness for perceiving hazards

The two studies reported here sought to measure and compare the Situation Awareness (SA) of younger and older driver groups whilst driving (Study 1), and watching video footage of actual car journeys (Study 2). In both studies this was achieved by recording a participant’s commentary on what s/he felt was of relevance to the driving task. The narratives produced were analysed by computer software that could abstract main concepts and calculate scores indicative of Situation Awareness. In Study 2, these scores were related to others for hazard perception proficiency (also derived from participant commentaries). It was found that the older drivers matched and often exceeded the younger drivers when their SA scores were compared individually, but not when assessed as a group. However, the younger drivers out-performed their older counterparts in hazard perception ability, and this was shown to be related to their Situation Awareness score. When the results from participants who undertook both studies were compared, it was found that Situation Awareness performance was significantly higher when commenting on video footage (Study 2) than whilst actually driving (Study 1).     

Training interventions are only effective on careful drivers,not careless drivers

Drivers aged 16–24 are overrepresented in fatal crashes compared to middle-aged, more experienced drivers. This age-related difference in crash rates partly arises from younger drivers’ poorer performance on three cognitive skills known to be related to crash involvement: hazard anticipation, hazard mitigation and attention maintenance. Training programs have been shown effective at improving these skills within a short period of time. However, young drivers are not homogenous and they have different driving styles. The driving styles can interact with driving skills by influencing both their acquisition and, once acquired, their execution. A study was undertaken on a driving simulator to determine whether the effectiveness of an already existing training program aimed at improving the three above mentioned skills is moderated by driving style. In particular, drivers were classified as either careful or careless drivers based both on their scores on measures designed to evaluate two general traits relevant to discriminating between careful and careless drivers (sensation seeking and aggressiveness) as well as on their scores designed to evaluate driving specific behaviors that discriminate between careful and careless drivers (aggressive driving behaviors and driving violations and errors). It was found that training improved the hazard anticipation and attention maintenance performance of only the careful drivers, not the careless drivers.     

Electrocortical signs of arousal in response to darkness and the assessment of type A behavior in professional drivers with and without cardiovascular disease

Background and Aims  In night driving, the fatal accident rate is about four times that in daytime. There is a lack of published studies of the effect of darkness on electrocortical responses in professional drivers (PD). Aim: Assessing relations between electroencephalographic (EEG) reactions to enforced darkness reminiscent of night driving, and untoward behavioral response patterns, notably Type A behavior. Methods  PD: 13 with ischemic heart disease, 12 hypertensives (HTN), 10 borderline hypertensives and 34 normotensives, and 23 non-PD controls. Five minutes of electroencephalographic recording with eyes closed, and subsequently 3 minutes exposure to darkness. EEG parameters were: alpha abundance, amplitude and frequent. Type A behavior (TAB) was assessed by observation and by questionnaire. Results  Alpha abundance diminished significantly for darkness compared to spontaneous recording for all groups. No between-group differences were found for EEG. There were no significant differences in EEG between drivers with IHD or HTN taking versus not taking centrally active β-blockers. Drivers with IHD were the only group to show significant increase in dominant α frequency at darkness. The IHD group also had the highest TAB questionnaire scores and the heaviest exposure to professional driving. Type A scores were significantly correlated with dominantt alpha frequency during darkness. Low availability of attachment and special driving hazards best predicted TAB scores in driven. There was a significance between group difference with respect to Symbolic Aversiveness at the work place comparing each driver group with the non-PD control group. Conclusions  Exposure to darkness reminiscent of night driving can elicit central arousal, in conflict with circadian rhythm, and in combination with other driving hazards which contribute to symbolic aversiveness, the essence of driving. And low availability of social attachment could contribute to sustained, and in turn to the development of Type A behavior in professional drivers.     

Aggressive Behavior of Passengers, Conflict Management Behavior, and Burnout Among Trolley Car Drivers

A sample of 96 trolley car drivers was used to investigate the relationship between aggressive behavior of passengers and burnout, the moderating effect of conflict management behavior of the drivers on this relationship; and the influence of burnout on customer-friendliness, passenger complaints, and absenteeism. The results show that aggressive behavior of passengers was related to all 3 burnout dimensions. The relationship of aggressive behavior of customers and professional efficacy was qualified by 2 significant interactions with 2 conflict management behavior styles: forcing and avoiding. The interactions showed that too much forcing as well as too much avoiding are related to less professional efficacy for drivers confronted with aggressive behavior. Passenger complaints were only related to less professional efficacy. The customer-friendliness of the drivers was related to less cynicism and more professional efficacy. Absenteeism was only related to exhaustion.     

From vision to action: experiments and models of steering control during driving

Experienced drivers performed simple steering maneuvers in the absence of continuous visual input. Experiments conducted in a driving simulator assessed drivers' performance of lane corrections during brief visual occlusion and examined the visual cues that guide steering. The dependence of steering behavior on heading, speed, and lateral position at the start of the maneuver was measured. Drivers adjusted steering amplitude with heading and performed the maneuver more rapidly at higher speeds. These dependencies were unaffected by a 1.5-s visual occlusion at the start of the maneuver. Longer occlusions resulted in severe performance degradation. Two steering control models were developed to account for these findings. In the 1st, steering actions were coupled to perceptual variables such as lateral position and heading. In the 2nd, drivers pursued a virtual target in the scene. Both models yielded behavior that closely matches that of human drivers.     

An Investigation of Self‐Rated Cues Believed to Influence the Judgment of Intelligence in a Zero‐Acquaintance Context1

This study examined participants' perceptions of the cues they believed to be important when making intelligence judgments in zero‐acquaintance contexts. In total, 467 British participants rated 29 items for how important they were when making judgments of intelligence and completed scales measuring their personality, self‐assessed intelligence, and demographics. A factor analysis showed that the 29 intelligence cues could be reduced to 4 factors: Physical Cues, Nonphysical Cues, Adornments, and Knowledge. There were no gender differences in ratings of these factors, and Knowledge was rated as the most important factor, followed by Nonphysical Cues, Adornments, and Physical Cues. These factors were weakly associated with participants' personality scores and self‐assessed intelligence. Results are discussed in relation to the literature on intelligence judgments.     

Driver stress as influenced by driving maneuvers and roadway conditions

Excess stress can influence driving performance and increase crash likelihood. The level of stress can also vary based on different driving conditions. Past research has not differentiated among these conditions, but rather has focused on individual driver differences. The goal of this study is to understand how different driving tasks and roadway conditions may influence the stress perceived by drivers. This was accomplished using data from a survey that assessed drivers’ stress under various road, traffic and weather-related scenarios. Factor analytic techniques were used to find groups of driving scenarios that generate similar stress levels in drivers. The results revealed four scenarios that were categorized in terms of (1) weather, (2) visibility, (3) interactions with other drivers, and (4) driving tasks. Ordered logistic regression models were then used to determine the effect of socioeconomic characteristics, trip behavior, and crash history for different stressful driving scenarios. Increases in stress with these four factors were influenced by age and gender, with females being more likely to report higher levels of stress than males. The effect of age varied in that older drivers generally reported higher stress levels, except when interacting with other drivers. Drivers with a history of crashes reported significantly higher stress levels when there was limited visibility, in adverse weather, and while performing common driving tasks. The results revealed that stress depends not only on driver characteristics, but also on the specific driving environment.     

Impacts of delayed feedback on eco-driving behavior and resulting environmental performance changes

Several ways have been developed and applied to improve the environmental footprint of road transportation while contributing to a better road efficiency and safety. However, independently of these measures, the individual’s behavior as a commuter and/or as a driver is also a major issue that cannot be ignored. As a result, the aim of this paper was to assess the impacts of delayed feedback on driving performance considering indicators such as average speed, excess speeding, extreme braking and acceleration; fuel consumption and CO₂ emissions, among others. Data on driving behavior was collected over a period of 6 months through the use of an on-board device installed in 40 light-duty vehicles in the region of Lisbon, Portugal. Two driving monitoring periods of 3 months each were considered: without feedback (Phase 1) and with feedback (Phase 2). Additionally, the short-term (weekly and bi-weekly) impact of feedback on performance was also assessed.The major findings indicate that both experimental and control groups increased fuel consumption and CO₂ emissions over 5%. Both male and female drivers presented increases in these indicators with female drivers presenting higher values (up to 8%, as opposed to the 4% presented by male drivers). These results are related with increases in the number of accelerations, idling and number of small trips (below 2 km) between monitoring periods. Regarding the immediate impact of feedback on driving behavior, results indicate that when receiving negative feedback (revealing a performance decline), behavior would improve the following week. The opposite was found for positive feedback, with drivers worsening performance after being informed they had improved the previous week. Such findings might give an indication that people react differently to the feedback provided, and might depreciate the information provided when negative results are reached.     

An analysis of public posting in reducing speeding behavior on an urban highway

The effects of public posting on speeding behavior on an urban highway were assessed using a reversal design. During baseline the percentage of drivers speeding was measured with a concealed radar unit. During the daily posting condition a highway sign was installed which provided feedback on the percentage of drivers not speeding yesterday and the best record to date. This sign was then covered and reintroduced. Results indicated that the sign was effective in reducing speeding behavior. Furthermore, the effects were most pronounced in reducing the speeds of the faster drivers. Next, daily and weekly postings were compared with the sign alone without numerical feedback: results revealed that the weekly posting condition was as effective as the daily posting condition, but that the sign had no influence when numbers were not posted. Finally, the weekly posting procedure remained effective during a 6-month follow-up condition.     

Violence prevention: Program effects on urban preschool and kindergarten children

This study compares the effectiveness of a violence prevention program with young, at-risk children in two settings. Preschool and kindergarten students, residing in Chicago public-housing developments, participated in a 28-session intervention. Knowledge, behavior problems, and social skills were assessed at pretest and posttest, based on child interviews, teacher ratings, and behavioral observations. Findings suggest that both preschool and kindergarten children demonstrated significant gains in knowledge, based on interview scores, and significant decreases in problem behaviors, based on behavioral observations; however, teacher ratings did not change significantly across time. The discrepancy in findings is explored and implications are discussed.     

Selection in Teams: An Exploration of the Teamwork Knowledge,Skills, and Ability Test

In 1994, Stevens and Campion introduced the Teamwork Knowledge, Skills, and Ability test (teamwork KSA test) for selecting employees for team–based organizations. Using experimental data from 57 ad hoc student teams (N = 227), we examined this test's relationship with both the behavior of the assigned leader in a team and the behavior of the other team members, respectively. We found that the teamwork KSA test successfully predicted individual team member behavior as indexed by external raters (r= .31) and peers (r= .34) such that higher scores on the teamwork KSA test related to greater individual effectiveness within the team. The teamwork KSA test was unrelated to the behavior of the assigned leader in the teams studied. Self–efficacy for teamwork was not related to individual behavior in teams, nor did it moderate the relationship between the teamwork KSA test and individual performance in teams. Limitations as well as directions for future research in team selection are discussed.     

Active engagement in a web-based tutorial to prevent obesity grounded in Fuzzy-Trace Theory predicts higher knowledge and gist comprehension

We used Sharable Knowledge Objects (SKOs) to create an Intelligent Tutoring System (ITS) grounded in Fuzzy-Trace Theory to teach women about obesity prevention: GistFit, getting the gist of healthy eating and exercise. The theory predicts that reliance on gist mental representations (as opposed to verbatim) is more effective in reducing health risks and improving decision making. Technical information was translated into decision-relevant gist representations and gist principles (i.e., healthy values). The SKO was hypothesized to facilitate extracting these gist representations and principles by engaging women in dialogue, “understanding” their responses, and replying appropriately to prompt additional engagement. Participants were randomly assigned to either the obesity prevention tutorial (GistFit) or a control tutorial containing different content using the same technology. Participants were administered assessments of knowledge about nutrition and exercise, gist comprehension, gist principles, behavioral intentions and self-reported behavior. An analysis of engagement in tutorial dialogues and responses to multiple-choice questions to check understanding throughout the tutorial revealed significant correlations between these conversations and scores on subsequent knowledge tests and gist comprehension. Knowledge and comprehension measures correlated with healthier behavior and greater intentions to perform healthy behavior. Differences between GistFit and control tutorials were greater for participants who engaged more fully. Thus, results are consistent with the hypothesis that active engagement with a new gist-based ITS, rather than a passive memorization of verbatim details, was associated with an array of known psychosocial mediators of preventive health decisions, such as knowledge acquisition, and gist comprehension.     

Marital satisfaction,parenting satisfaction,and parenting behavior in early infancy

The relationships between marital adjustment, satisfaction with parenting and actual parental behavior were assessed for a sample of first-time parents. Results indicated that there were consistent relationships between fathers' satisfaction scores and their own behaviors, but few relationships between mothers' behaviors and satisfaction scores. It was suggested that the determinants of the behavior of mothers and fathers may differ. In the absence of specific socialization of fathers into a caregiving role, fathers' caregiving style may become organized and develop primarily in the context of their relationships with their spouses.     

Shared road is double happiness: Evaluation of a “Share the road” sign

A road sign with the text «Share the road» and a picture of a smiling cyclist and a passing car was evaluated in a before–after study with surveys among cyclists and car drivers. The sign was set up at two sites on a test road near Oslo in summer 2014. A similar road was used as a comparison. About two thirds of the participants on the test road had noticed the sign. The majority liked it and agreed with its message. Cyclists have more often noticed the sign than car drivers have and they were somewhat more positive towards the sign. Effects on self-reported behavior and the perceived behavior of others were evaluated by comparing changes from the before- to the after-period between test and comparison road. Self-reported behavior of both cyclists and car drivers has improved on the test road after the sign was set up, especially in overtaking situations, and these results are in accordance with how cyclists and car drivers perceived each other’s behavior. The general perception of other road users has improved as well. The results are most likely representative of similar roads with a large proportion of car traffic that is related to recreation and a relatively low level of conflict.     

Comparison of pedestrian behaviors between drivers and non-drivers in Chinese sample

Road safety is a serious problem worldwide. Pedestrians, as the most vulnerable road users, deserve more attention. The aims of this study were to examine the validity of the Chinese version of the pedestrian behavior scale (CPBS) in both driver and non-driver samples, and to compare pedestrian behaviors between the two samples. In addition, we assessed the association of attention with pedestrian behaviors by exploring the relationships among CPBS, Mindful Attention Awareness Scale (MAAS) and Attention-Related Cognitive Errors Scale (ARCES). Two groups were assessed, including 302 members in the population with driving experience and 307 individuals in the non-driver group without driving experience. All participants completed the CPBS, MAAS, and ARCES, and provided sociodemographic parameters. The results showed that the CPBS had acceptable internal consistency and stability structure. More importantly, pedestrian behaviors were significantly different between drivers and non-drivers. Drivers reported significantly less transgressive and aggressive behaviors compared with non-drivers. As for the relationship between attention and pedestrian behavior, the MAAS score showed a significant negative correlation with aggressive behavior in the CPBS among drivers, while the ARCES score had significant positive correlations with all three CPBS factors. In non-drivers, the MAAS score was negatively correlated with aggressive behavior and positively associated with positive behavior; the ARCES score was positively correlated with aggressive behavior.     

Proximal Impact of Two First-Grade Preventive Interventions on the Early Risk Behaviors for Later Substance Abuse, Depression, and Antisocial Behavior

We assessed the immediate effects of two universal, first-grade preventive interventions on the proximal targets of poor achievement, concentration problems, aggression, and shy behaviors, known early risk behaviors for later substance use/abuse, affective disorder, and conduct disorder. The classroom-centered (CC) intervention was designed to reduce these early risk behaviors by enhancing teachers' behavior management and instructional skills, whereas the family-school partnership (FSP) intervention was aimed at improving parent-teacher communication and parental teaching and child behavior management strategies. Over the course of first and second grades, the CC intervention yielded the greatest degree of impact on its proximal targets, whereas the FSP's impact was somewhat less. The effects were influenced by gender and by preintervention levels of risk. Analyses of implementation measures demonstrated that greater fidelity to the intervention protocols was associated with greater impact on behavior ratings and on achievement scores, thus providing some evidence of specificity in the effect of the interventions.     

The time-saving bias, speed choices and driving behavior

When drivers are asked to estimate how much time can be saved by increasing speed, they generally underestimate the time saved when increasing from a relatively low speed and overestimate the time saved when increasing from a relatively high speed. This time-saving bias has been demonstrated to affect drivers’ estimations of driving speed as well as drivers’ personal choice of speed. Specifically, drivers with a high time-saving bias chose unduly high speeds, which sometimes results in speeding, more frequently than drivers with a lower degree of the bias. This study sought to determine whether this relationship would be mediated by individual differences in driving behavior – including drivers’ attitudes, norms and habits regarding speeding behavior as well as their level of aberrant driving behavior (committing aggressive or ordinary violations, errors or lapses in driving, measured by the Driver Behaviour Questionnaire). The results showed that the time-saving bias predicted estimations of required speed better than any of these factors, and also better than drivers’ age, gender, education and income, as well as the number of years they have had a license and their monthly driving kilometrage, their prior speeding violations and crash involvement. In predicting drivers’ personal speed choices, the time-saving bias was second only to the frequency of committing ordinary violations.     

Stress, coping techniques, and depressed affect: explorations within a normal sample.

The study investigated relations between perceived stress, coping techniques, and scores on the Beck Depression Inventory for a sample of 84 undergraduates. Using Beck Depression scores as the dependent variable, analyses of variance showed significant effects for stress and three of seven coping techniques assessed: escape, dysfunctional behavior, and use of the professional health care system. Interactions of stress x dysfunctional behavior and stress x narcotizing anxiety were also noted. Some additional analyses indicated that coping techniques emphasizing ego protective attitudes (e.g., remaining hopeful, not getting down on oneself) were negatively related to Beck Depression scores.