Motor acquisition rate in Brazilian infants

This study used the Alberta Infant Motor Scale (AIMS) with the aim of characterizing motor acquisition rate in 70 healthy 0–6‐month‐old Brazilian infants, as well as comparing both emergence (initial age) and establishment (final age) of each skill between the study sample and the AIMS normative data. New motor skills were continuously acquired from 0 to 6 months of age by the Brazilian infants, but their acquisition rate was non‐linear. When compared to the AIMS sample, Brazilian infants achieved lower percentiles, and their initial age to acquire skills requiring greater antigravity demand was higher. In contrast, Brazilian infants stopped exhibiting primitive patterns earlier, and their final age to acquire antigravity skills was lower. These differences in motor development are suggested to be a consequence of different parental practices and not necessarily indicate motor delay. Thus, the AIMS normative values should be adapted to cultural particularities so as to avoid that infants are misclassified as at risk for motor delay. Furthermore, an adequate assessment of motor development should consider not only the age at which a skill is emerged, but also the age at which such a skill is established in the infant's motor repertoire. Copyright © 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Coaches' expectations and beliefs regarding benefits of youth sport participation

Although many have investigated why children participate in sport, little is known about what adults expect children to gain from participation. The present purpose was to examine coaches' expectations of what children should gain from participation in sport and the extent to which coaches believe that these expectations are actually fulfilled. Participants included 109 youth sport coaches who completed a survey packet consisting of a demographic information questionnaire and the Ohio Sport Satisfaction Index. Analysis indicated coaches ranked the variables of having fun, learning life skills, being part of a team, developing confidence, and the excitement of competition as the most important outcomes for the youth they coach. Generally, coaches believe that their expectations are being fulfilled. Coaches' sex and years of coaching were not significantly related to any of the criterion variables in the present study.     

Is Life Skill Development a By-Product of Sport Participation? Perceptions of Youth Sport Coaches

The purpose of this study was to understand youth sport coaches’ perceptions of life skill development. Semi-structured interviews were conducted with 23 youth sport coaches across 5 organizations. Analyses revealed 4 themes based on coaches’ perceptions: (a) life skills are a by-product of sport participation, and transfer “just happens”; (b) if intentionally addressed, it's reactive; (c) coaches recognize the value of intentionally teaching life skills; and (d) coaches identify challenges associated with using an explicit approach to teaching life skills. Results provide evidence for the state of the current sport context and highlight areas for coach education related to life skills integration.     

Exploring the life skills needs of British adolescent athletes

ObjectivesYouth sport programs have been designed to facilitate positive development of young sports people by teaching life skills. It is unclear which life skills are needed by adolescent athletes and which life skills should be included in youth sport programs. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to explore how life skills are defined, which life skills British adolescent athletes need, and which life skills are the most important.Design and methodNineteen adolescent athletes, 10 coaches, 4 experts in sport psychology (pilot group) and 5 graduate students (pilot group) participated in a series of focus groups. An inductive analysis revealed how life skills are defined, which life skills British adolescent athletes need, and of these skills which are the most important.ResultsLife skills were defined as ranges of transferable skills needed for everyday life, by everybody, that help people thrive. Participants described the need for interpersonal skills including social skills, respect, leadership, family interactions, and communication. Personal skills including self-organization, discipline, self-reliance, goal setting, managing performance outcomes, and motivation, were also reported. Social skills were identified as the most important life skills.ConclusionsIn conclusion, findings add support to existing positive youth development research while adding an insight into which life skills should be built into youth sport programs in the United Kingdom.     

Teacher-Coaches’ Perceptions of Life Skills Transfer from High School Sport to the Classroom

Positive youth development is one of the primary goals of high school sport participation, yet the process of how youth transfer life skills from sport to other life domains is in need of greater examination. To offer a unique perspective, the purpose of the study explored teacher-coaches’ perceptions of the process of life skills transfer for student-athletes from high school sport to the classroom. Using a constructivist approach, 12 teacher-coaches (9 male, 3 female) with an average of 13?years (SD?=?5.7) experience as a teacher-coach completed in-person, semistructured interviews. Using model for life skills transfer as a guiding framework, the theoretical thematic analysis revealed specific student-athlete characteristics (e.g., internal assets, external assets), high school sport factors (e.g., inherent demands, coaching characteristics), and high school classroom factors (e.g., classroom contextual factors, student-athlete psychological processes) that helped or hindered the process of life skills transfer. The critical influences of individual awareness and agency and of congruence between contexts highlighted the value of understanding life skills transfer through a developmental systems lens. Results are discussed with specific recommendations for researchers and practitioners related to understanding life skills transfer.

Lay Summary: Positive youth development is a primary goal of high school sport participation, yet researchers can do more to understand the developmental outcomes from high school sport. In this study, teacher-coaches identified specific factors that can help and hinder student-athletes’ ability and likelihood of transferring life skills from high school sport to the classroom.     

Observational learning use and self-efficacy beliefs in adult sport novices

ObjectivesThe purposes of this study were to investigate adult sport novices' use of the functions of observational learning and to examine its relationship to their self-efficacy beliefs to learn sport-related skills and strategies, and to regulate mental states during the learning process.MethodAdults enrolled in beginner level sport classes completed the Functions of Observational Learning Questionnaire (FOLQ; Cumming, J., Clark, S.E., Ste-Marie, D.M., McCullagh, P., & Hall, C. (2005). The functions of observational learning questionnaire (FOLQ). Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 6, 517–537.) as well as a self-efficacy questionnaire. Internal consistencies were acceptable for all subscales and a factor analysis confirmed that this instrument can be used with sport novices.ResultsAthletes' use of observational learning and their self-efficacy beliefs differed according to sport type. Hierarchical multiple regression analyses revealed that for adults learning an independent sport, more frequent use of the skill function of observational learning predicted higher self-efficacy to learn skills and self-efficacy to learn strategies. For adults learning an interactive sport, more frequent use of the performance function predicted higher self-efficacy to regulate mental states during the learning process.ConclusionsResults suggest that factors related to specific sport types, such as sport demands and model availability, may differentially influence learners' use of observational learning as well as its impact on their self-efficacy for learning technical sport components and self-efficacy for controlling their mental state during learning. This has implications for sport instructors and coaches regarding optimal methods for structuring observational learning experiences to enhance learners' self-efficacy beliefs.     

Group dynamics in Canadian recreational team sports later in life

As interest and participation in physical activity later in life increases, evidence is needed to inform the promotion, design, and delivery of community-based sport for older people. One important consideration is the dynamics of the group, which may influence experiences of team sport among aging populations. A qualitative study was undertaken to explore group dynamics concepts and perceived outcomes experienced by older adults involved in Canadian community-based recreational teams. Seventeen mid-life and older adults (M_age = 64.06, SD = 6.40) who previously participated in youth team sport and were currently involved in adult recreational team sport participated in semi-structured phone interviews. Results were organized into categories outlined in the conceptual framework for the study of sport teams (Eys et al., 2020). Issues specific to team dynamics experienced in older adulthood are highlighted and relate to competitiveness, sport specific skills/knowledge, competitive level, motivational climate, interdependence, team stability, group norms, roles, cohesion, leadership, social support, conflict, enjoyment, personal development, and social connections. Findings underscore the relevance of team dynamics in older adulthood and importance of understanding individual and environmental attributes in relation to group processes, structures, emergent states, and outcomes specific to sport for older adults. Directions for future research and practical implications to encourage greater involvement and sustained participation in team sport throughout the lifespan are discussed.     

Multiple Learning Contexts and the Development of Life Skills Among Canadian Junior National Team Biathletes

The purposes of this study were to identify and explore (a) the life skills learning contexts experienced by Canadian junior national team biathletes and (b) the ways in which they learned life skills in these contexts. Nine members of the Canadian junior national biathlon team participated in individual semi-structured interviews. Results of thematic analysis revealed 3 life skills learning contexts: sport, school/work, and family. Participants reported learning life skills by using cognitive processes of observational learning and reflections on experiences. Some athletes reported that life skills learning occurred automatically, which may suggest implicit cognitive learning.

Lay Summary:

The different contexts in which Canadian junior national team biathletes learned life skills were studied. Nine athletes were interviewed. Athletes learned life skills in sport, school/work, and family contexts. They used cognitive strategies of observational learning and reflecting on experiences. Some athletes thought they learned life skills automatically, which may suggest implicit cognitive learning.     

Examining the Importance of Intentionally Structuring the Youth Sport Context to Facilitate Positive Youth Development

Researchers argue that sport must be deliberately structured to teach life skills. The purpose of this study was to examine differences in program quality and positive developmental outcomes across 3 youth programming contexts (intentional sport, nonintentional sport, intentional leadership) pertaining to the importance of intentionally teaching life skills. Researchers conducted 184 observations, and 377 youth completed 2 questionnaires. Results indicated intentionally structured programs scored higher on program quality and positive youth development outcomes than nonintentionally structured programs, with intentional sport scoring significantly higher on some measures of program quality and positive youth development than leadership programs. Practical implications and future research areas are discussed.     

Degree of illiteracy and phonological and metaphonological skills in unschooled adults

Phonological and metaphonological skills are explored in 97 Brazilian illiterate and semiliterate adults. A simple letter- and word-reading task was used to define the degree of illiteracy. Phonemic awareness was strongly dependent on the level of letter and word reading ability. Phonological memory was very low in illiterates and unrelated to letter knowledge. Rhyme identification was relatively preserved in illiterates and semiliterates, and unrelated to letter and word reading level. Phonetic discrimination (minimal pairs) was fairly good and marginally related to reading ability. These results suggest that phonological sensitivity, phonological memory, rhyme identification, and phonemic awareness are distinctive cognitive processes, and that only phonemic awareness is clearly and strongly dependent on the alphabetical acquisition.     

Evaluating the Coaching for Life Skills online training program: A randomised controlled trial

ObjectivesHigh school sport is considered a suitable context in which to develop life skills, yet most coaches are not equipped with the knowledge/tools needed to deliberately teach life skills. The purpose of the study was to evaluate the effectiveness of the Coaching for Life Skills online training program in helping coaches create environments conducive to the teaching of life skills.DesignRandomised controlled trial using a concurrent multiple baseline across groups design.MethodA total of 1,238 (58.8% male) Canadian high school coaches completed baseline testing examining coach-athlete relationship, coach interpersonal behaviours, and life skills teaching. Participants were then randomly assigned to an experimental, waitlist, or control group. A final sample of 285 (59.7% male) participants completed the trial (i.e., 36 experimental, 58 waitlist, and 191 control). Data were analysed using 3 x 3 repeated measures factorial analyses.ResultsAcross the three constructs assessed, there were no significant within-subject main effects for time, group, or for the interaction between time and group.ConclusionsAlthough the results were not statistically significant, visual analysis indicated positive directional changes for all three dependent variables, with increases in mean scores observed for both experimental and waitlist group participants following their completion of the Coaching for Life Skills online training program. Findings have implications for the design of online coach training programs aimed at helping coaches teach life skills through sport.     

Behavioral coaching in the development of skills in football, gymnastics, and tennis

A review of the literature indicates that methods of skill acquisition based on the operant paradigm have been scientifically validated with many motor behaviors. However, these procedures have been limited to the use of positive reinforcement for correct performance when applied to the acquisition of complex sports skills in natural settings. To find complementary procedures to enhance skill acquisition, a coaching method involving several behavioral techniques was developed that focused on remediation of errors. This coaching method combined the following components: (1) systematic use of verbal instructions and feedback, (2) positive and negative reinforcement, (3) positive practice, and (4) time out. Three sports, football, gymnastics, and tennis, were selected to determine the effectiveness and generality of this behavioral coaching method. A total of 23 male and female subjects, ranging in age from 11 to 35, was included in this study. Baseline data were first collected for each sport under standard coaching conditions. Next, the behavioral coaching method was evaluated depending on the sport in either a multiple baseline or a reversal design. The behavioral dimensions selected were blocking in football; backward walkovers, front hand springs, and reverse kips in gymnastics; and the forehand, backhand, and serve in tennis. Behavioral coaching was immediately effective in increasing the correct execution of complex skills in all three sports. Gains of up to 10 times the baseline performance were achieved in each sport. In football, behavioral coaching resulted in an increase in correct blocking performance from a baseline average of 5% to 51.3%. Gymnasts' performances increased from baseline averages of 2.7% to 52.6% across the three skills. In tennis, standard coaching produced an average of 6% correct performance which increased dramatically under behavioral coaching to 57% across the three strokes. The success of the behavioral coaching package used here suggests that a technology of behavior may offer additional and complementary strategies to the acquisition of motor skills in the natural environment.     

High school student-athletes’ perceptions and experiences of leadership as a life skill

ObjectivesThe purpose of this study was to gain student-athlete perceptions of: (1) the definition of leadership for high school student-athletes; (2) the process of leadership development in high school sport; and (3) the factors that have helped or hindered leadership transfer between high school sport and other life domains.DesignThis study was grounded in an interpretivist ontological perspective and used focus group interviews to gather insights of student-athletes’ leadership experiences.MethodPurposeful sampling identified 33 high-school student-athlete leaders who were members of student advisory councils for high school state athletic associations in the United States. The 15 females and 18 males participated in focus-group interviews. Reflexive thematic analysis of the interview data was then conducted.ResultsResults revealed that student-athlete leadership was viewed as a skill-set and a mindset, driven by individual agency. As an on-going developmental process, student-athletes gained awareness of leadership skills, increased self-expectations and self-confidence in their use and application of leadership skills, and developed a transformational leadership mindset, as they encountered and engaged with critical learning opportunities in high school sport and gained support from coaches and peers. Leadership application outside of sport was a multidimensional psychological process, including both conscious and implicit elements, and facilitated or constrained by environmental opportunities and social influences.ConclusionsHigh school sport offers a unique context where self-agentic youth leadership development in sport and life can occur through experiential learning opportunities. To this point, future research directions and recommendations for practitioners will be provided.     

Abandoning The Performance Narrative: Two Women's Stories of Transition from Professional Sport

Despite its potential to illuminate psychological processes within socio-cultural contexts, examples of narrative research are rare in sport psychology. In this study, we employed an analysis of narrative to explore two women's stories of living in, and withdrawing from, professional tournament golf gathered through life history interviews conducted over 6 years. Our findings suggest that immersion in elite sport culture shaped these women's identities around performance values of single-minded dedication to sport and prioritization of winning above all other areas of life. When the performance narrative ceased to “fit” their changing lives, both women, having no alternative narrative to guide their personal life stories, experienced narrative wreckage and considerable personal trauma. They required asylum—a place of refuge where performance values were no longer paramount—to story their lives around a relational narrative that reinstated a coherent identity while providing meaning and worth to life after golf.     

Perceptual‐cognitive expertise in sport and its acquisition: Implications for applied cognitive psychology

We review contemporary research on perceptual‐cognitive expertise in sport and consider implications for those working in the field of applied cognitive psychology. We identify the important perceptual‐cognitive skills that facilitate anticipation in sport and illustrate how these skills interact in a dynamic manner during performance. We also highlight our current understanding of how these skills are acquired and consider the extent to which the underlying processes are specific to a particular domain and role within that domain. Next, we briefly review recent attempts to facilitate the acquisition of perceptual‐cognitive expertise using simulation training coupled with instruction and feedback on task performance. Finally, we discuss how research on elite athletes can help inform applied cognitive psychologists who are interested in capturing and enhancing perceptual‐cognitive expertise across various domains. Copyright © 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

How do people know?

To fully understand processes of knowing and knowledge acquisition, it is necessary to examine people's understanding of their own knowing. Individual and developmental differences in what it means to know something, and hence in the criteria for justifying knowledge claims, have potentially wide-ranging implications. In providing support for a claim, young children have difficulty differentiating explanation of why a claim makes sense and evidence that the claim is true. Epistemic understanding progresses developmentally, but substantial variation remains among adults, with few adults achieving understanding of the complementary strengths and weaknesses of evidence and explanation in argument. Epistemic understanding shapes intellectual values and hence the disposition (as opposed to competence) to exercise intellectual skills. Only its most advanced levels support a disposition to engage in the intellectual effort that reasoned argument entails. The sample case of juror reasoning illustrates how epistemic understanding underlies and shapes intellectual performance.     

Three feedback methods in acquisition and retention of badminton skills

Comparison of three different feedback methods using information about the correct execution of the technique, errors of execution, and a combination of these on the acquisition and retention of two badminton skills of different difficulty were examined. Participants were 48 young male athletes, 10 to 14 years of age, with 2 to 4 years of training. They were divided into three equal groups and instructed on the long forehand serve, a more difficult serve than the short backhand. The first group received instructions for correct execution, the second group received instructional cues on errors of execution, and the third group received instructions on errors and how to correct them. The training program lasted 12 practice units. There was a pretest, a posttest after the end of the 10-wk. training program, and 2 wk. later, a retention test. A three-way (2 difficulty x 3 groups x 3 measures) analysis of variance with repeated measures on the last factor was applied to analyze scores with the three practice methods of corrective feedback for the two badminton skills. Analysis showed the group receiving correct technique information had increased scores on both skills. The group receiving information on errors increased their scores on the less difficult skill. The group receiving information on errors and correct technique increased their scores on the more difficult skill. Physical education teachers or coaches teaching skills to young participants should consider difficulty of skills and use appropriate corrective feedback for better acquisition and retention of sport skills.     

Evaluating the Effectiveness of an Abduction Prevention Program for Young Adults With Intellectual Disabilities

The purpose of this study was to evaluate the effectiveness of behavioral skills training (BST) and in situ training (IST) for teaching abduction prevention skills to young adults with intellectual disabilities. Four individuals, ages 18–24, participated. Five BST sessions were conducted for each participant. Following BST, in situ assessments took place at the participants’ school to assess acquisition of the skills. The data show that none of the participants reached criterion level following BST although some of the participants improved their score from baseline. IST was then implemented with two of the participants achieving criterion level and two participants exhibiting two of the three safety skills.     

A School Psychologist's Self-Study Guide to Sport Psychology

SUMMARY

School psychologists may find the field of sport psychology beneficial to them in extending their skills and effectiveness. As trained psychologists, they are likely to already have some of the knowledge and skills necessary for working in the area of sport psychology. However, without additional training, this may not be sufficient for ethical and effective practice. This article enumerates the necessary knowledge and skills for working in sport psychology according to APA's recent proficiency standards. It then details a plethora of available resources and methods for entering into the domain of sport psychology. The article emphasizes self-study while continuing to practice ethically within the ‘boundaries of one's competence.’