Dispositional resistance to change: measurement equivalence and the link to personal values across 17 nations

The concept of dispositional resistance to change has been introduced in a series of exploratory and confirmatory analyses through which the validity of the Resistance to Change (RTC) Scale has been established (S. Oreg, 2003). However, the vast majority of participants with whom the scale was validated were from the United States. The purpose of the present work was to examine the meaningfulness of the construct and the validity of the scale across nations. Measurement equivalence analyses of data from 17 countries, representing 13 languages and 4 continents, confirmed the cross-national validity of the scale. Equivalent patterns of relationships between personal values and RTC across samples extend the nomological net of the construct and provide further evidence that dispositional resistance to change holds equivalent meanings across nations.     

The vulnerability of values to attack: inoculation of values and value-relevant attitudes

Based on the values-as-truisms hypothesis and inoculation theory, two experiments tested whether providing cognitive defenses for the value of equality induces resistance against a message attacking this value. Experiment 1 found that participants who generated cognitive support in an active-supportive or an active-refutational defense were less persuaded by a subsequent message attacking equality than were participants who engaged in no prior defense. Experiment 2 examined the effects of an active-refutational defense and a passive-refutational defense, which simply asked participants to read reasons supporting or opposing equality. Results indicated additive effects of the active and passive defenses, such that participants were most resistant to the anti-equality message when they were given both defenses. Mediational analysis across both experiments revealed that the defenses increased counterargumentation of the anti-equality message, which led to increased post-attack importance of equality and predicted more favorable equality-relevant attitudes and values.     

Parental sex-role attitudes and child-rearing values

Parental sex-role attitudes (i.e., sex-role ideology, self-perceptions of masculinity and femininity and stereotyping) were examined in relation to the parental child-rearing values of independence granting and pressure for achievement. The major hypothesis was that nontraditional sex-role attitudes would be related to earlier independence granting and greater emphasis on achievement, particularly among parents of female children. A second objective was to examine sex-of-child and sex-of-parent differences in these two child-rearing values. The subjects were the natural mothers (n=138) and fathers (n=114) of preschool girls and boys. The sample (N=252) was all White, middle class, in two-parent families, and highly educated. Among parents of girls, but not of boys, sex-role attitudes had a significant effect on child-rearing values in the hypothesized direction. As for the child-rearing values per se, few sex-of-child or sex-of-parent differences emerged. In contrast to previous studies, fathers' child-rearing values were found to be relatively unaffected by the sex of their children.Data reported here were gathered as part of a research project supported by NIMH Grant No. 25217. The author is deeply grateful for the collaboration of Grace Baruch in all phases of the research. She wishes also to acknowledge the assistance of Susan Dibner, Nancy Harmon, and Diana Jeffries in instrument design and data collection, and of Frances Stubblefield in data analysis. The cooperation of participating children, parents, and preschool personnel is greatly appreciated.     

Opening the mind to close it: considering a message in light of important values increases message processing and later resistance to change

Past research showed that considering a persuasive message in light of important rather than unimportant values creates attitudes that resist later attack. The traditional explanation is that the attitudes come to express the value or that a cognitive link between the value and attitude enhances resistance. However, the current research showed that another explanation is plausible. Similar to other sources of involvement, considering important rather than unimportant values increases processing of the message considered in light of those values. This occurs when the values are identified as normatively high or low in importance and when the perceived importance differs across participants for the same values. The increase in processing creates resistance to later attacks, and unlike past research, individual-level measures of initial amount of processing mediate value importance effects on later resistance to change. Important values motivate processing because they increase personal involvement with the issue, rather than creating attitudes that represent or express core values.     

Attempting to change sex role attitudes in adolescents: explorations of reverse effects.

Previous interventions designed to reduce sex role stereotypes have been successful with women, but frequently have had no effects, or reverse effects, with men. These interventions have generally used presentations emphasizing women's roles. In the present study, three experiments were conducted using media presentations focusing on men. Two of these produced reverse effects in women. Despite the brevity of the interventions, the effects persisted three or four weeks later, and were intensified, suggesting a sleeper effect. These male-focused presentations produced positive effects in the male subjects in all three experiments, though these did not reach statistical significance. The results strongly suggest that current sex differences in sex role attitudes are partially due to situational determinants (as well as developmental factors). Implications of reverse effects for counselors and educators are discussed.     

Ambivalence toward imposed change: the conflict between dispositional resistance to change and the orientation toward the change agent

Following an analysis of the concept of "imposed change," we propose 2 factors that jointly contribute to an individual's experience of ambivalence to imposed change. In a secondary analysis of data (N = 172) and 2 field studies (N = 104, N = 89), we showed that individuals' personal orientation toward change interacts with their orientation toward the change agent and yields ambivalence. Specifically, among employees with a positive orientation toward the change agent (i.e., high trust in management, identification with the organization), the relationship between employees' dispositional resistance to change and ambivalence was positive. The opposite pattern emerged among employees with a negative orientation toward the change agent (Studies 2 and 3). Our findings suggest that researchers may have been misinterpreting employees' reactions to change, neglecting the possibility that some may simultaneously hold strong, yet conflicting, views about the change. By accounting for, and predicting, ambivalence, these studies provide a more accurate explanation of employees' responses to change.     

Using stories to assess values and establish medical directives

While still developing in Germany, a consensus has emerged in the United States on the use of advance directives for guiding future medical decision making. This article outlines three phases in the evolution of advance directive forms--the legal phase, the checklist phase, and the story phase. The story-based approach is discussed as the best method for assessing patient values and incorporating them into advance directives, and a story-based advance directive form, which has been developed and tested during the past two years, is presented.     

The congruence of personal life values and work attitudes

The authors examined the congruence between an individual's personal-life value placement and attitudes at work. Specifically, they examined how people place value on work, family, religion, and themselves (the personal life values), respectively, and how that choice influences affect, commitment, conscientiousness, and honesty in the workplace (attitudes at work). The authors also examined and tested exploratory hypotheses by using both simple correlations and multiple linear regression analyses. Results suggested varying relationships between value placement and work attitudes. The authors discussed implications and directions for future research.     

Response-independent food delivery and behavioral resistance to change

Response-independent food was delivered during a dark-key phase between two multiple-schedule components to explore its disruptive effects on responding. Responding in components was maintained by separate variable-interval 120-s schedules, with a 2-s reinforcer in Component 1 and a 6-s reinforcer in Component 2. Across conditions the rate and duration of response-independent food presentations were manipulated. The results showed that response rates in both components decreased as a function of the duration and the rate of response-independent food presentations; moreover, the decrease in response rate relative to the baseline level was larger in Component 1 than in Component 2. These findings were consistent with expectations from behavioral momentum theory, which predicts that if equal disruption (response-independent food in this case) is applied to responding in two components, then the ratio of response-rate change in Component 1 versus Component 2 should remain constant, irrespective of the magnitude of that disruption.     

Employee resistance to organizational change: managerial influence tactics and leader-member exchange

The authors explored the relationship between managerial influence tactics and employee resistance to organizational change. Using attribution theory, the authors developed a series of hypotheses concerning the effects of influence tactics on employee resistance to change and the ways in which these relationships are moderated by leader-member exchange. Results, which are based on multisource data, suggest that employee resistance reflects both the type of influence a manager uses and the strength of leader-member exchange.     

Surfacing embedded assumptions: Using repertory grid methodology to facilitate organizational change

This article outlines a 3-year research project that examines the role of performance evaluation and control systems in bringing about change in manufacturing organizations. A key aim of the project was to develop tools and techniques that managers can use to enable them to understand and enact change. As part of an indepth case study methodology, repertory grid interviews were used with both managers and operatives in three companies as a means of identifying commonly held assumptions about a range of work behaviours. The article discusses the use of the grid as a developmental, rather than exploratory technique, thereby focusing on its use as a process through which managers can assess their systems in use and highlight any necessary change issues. It is argued that repertory grid techniques have a useful part to play in diagnosing the key change issues that work and organizational psychologists face when planning organizational change and development interventions.