Comparison of characteristics of Vietnam veterans with and without posttraumatic stress disorder

Characteristics of 107 Vietnam veterans with and without Posttraumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD), who had been exposed to varying levels of combat, were compared. Severity of psychopathology as assessed on the Eysenck Personality Questionnaire, locus of control orientation as measured by the Nowicki-Strickland Internal-External Control Scale, and ability to have provided structure and meaning to the Vietnam experience were examined. Compared to veterans with Posttraumatic Stress Disorder, those without the disorder had lower Neuroticism and Psychoticism scores, were more internal in their locus of control orientation, and were more likely to have shown ability to provide structure to the Vietnam experience. The additional finding that veterans with high combat experience but without PTSD evidenced less neuroticism than low combat veterans without PTSD provides evidence that those who did not develop the disorder despite high exposure to combat stress are individuals with exceptional emotional strength and resilience.     

Everyday Strivings in War Veterans With Posttraumatic Stress Disorder: Suffering From a Hyper-Focus on Avoidance and Emotion Regulation

This research investigated whether combat veterans' daily strivings are related to the presence of post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and well-being. Veterans created a list of their most important strivings, which were content-analyzed for emotion regulation and approach or avoidance themes. It was hypothesized that veterans pursuing strivings with themes of emotion regulation or avoidance experience deleterious consequences compared with other veterans. For all veterans, devoting finite time and energy in daily life to regulating emotions was associated with less purpose, meaning, and joy compared with other strivings. Veterans with PTSD endorsed more strivings related to emotion regulation and devoted considerable effort to emotion regulation and avoidance strivings. Yet, these efforts failed to translate into any discernible benefits; veterans without PTSD derived greater joy and meaning from strivings focusing on approac- oriented behavior and themes other than emotion regulation. The presence of PTSD and a high rate of emotion regulation strivings led to the lowest global well-being and daily self-esteem during a 14-day assessment period. The presence of PTSD and a high rate of avoidance strivings also led to lower emotional well-being. Results indicate that strivings devoted to regulating emotions or avoidance efforts influence the mental health of veterans with and without PTSD. Studying personality at different levels of analysis—traits, strivings, and life narratives—allows for a fine-grained understanding of emotional disorders.     

Are There Atheists in Foxholes? Combat Intensity and Religious Behavior

After battle, the moral and mortality stresses influence different soldiers in different ways. Using two large-scale surveys of World War II veterans, this research investigates the impact of combat on religiosity. Study 1 shows that as combat became more frightening, the percentage of soldiers who reported praying rose from 42 to 72 %. Study 2 shows that 50 years later, many soldiers still exhibited religious behavior, but it varied by their war experience. Soldiers who faced heavy combat (vs. no combat) attended church 21 % more often if they claimed their war experience was negative, but those who claimed their experience was positive attended 26 % less often. The more a combat veteran disliked the war, the more religious they were 50 years later. While implications for counselors, clergy, support groups, and health practitioners are outlined, saying there are no atheists in foxholes may be less of an argument against atheism than it is against foxholes.     

Reliving,emotions, and fragmentation in the autobiographical memories of veterans diagnosed with PTSD

Fifty veterans diagnosed with posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) each recalled four autobiographical memories: one from the 2 years before service, one non‐combat memory from the time in service, one from combat, and one from service that had often come as an intrusive memory. For each memory, they provided 21 ratings about reliving, belief, sensory properties, reexperiencing emotions, visceral emotional responses, fragmentation, and narrative coherence. We used these ratings to examine three claims about traumatic memories: a separation of cognitive and visceral aspects of emotion, an increased sense of reliving, and increased fragmentation. There was evidence for a partial separation of cognitive judgments of reexperiencing an emotion and reports of visceral symptoms of the emotion, with visceral symptoms correlating more consistently with scores on PTSD tests. Reliving, but not fragmentation of the memories, increased with increases in the trauma relatedness of the event and with increases in scores on standardized tests of PTSD severity. Copyright © 2004 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Reasoning about highly emotional topics: Syllogistic reasoning in a group of war veterans

Previous studies have generally found that emotion impairs logical reasoning. However, laboratory experiments have typically involved relatively mild levels of emotion where affect is not linked to personal experience. In this study we examined how army veterans reasoned about syllogisms of three types: neutral, generally emotional, and combat-related emotional. We also measured intensity of combat experience. Veterans were more likely to provide logically accurate answers when reasoning about combat-related compared to neutral problems. Participants with more intense combat experiences showed a reduced advantage in reasoning about combat-related emotional problems.     

The psychophysiology of combat-induced post-traumatic stress disorder in Vietnam veterans

The psychophysiological responses of heart rate (HR), systolic and diastolic blood pressure, skin conductance level and forehead electromyogram were compared during: rest, mental arithmetic and combat sounds of gradually increasing intensity for five groups of Ss: Vietnam veterans with post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD); Vietnam veterans without PTSD but with comparable levels of combat experience; Vietnam veterans with other psychiatric disorders; Vietnam-era veterans; and nonveteran phobics. HR response to low-intensity combat sounds provided good discrimination between veterans with PTSD and the other groups and seems to resemble a conditioned emotional response.     

Positive impact of prior military combat exposure on Terrorism Prevention work: Inoculation to stress

Forty-four Israeli security agents employed by the Israeli Government Terrorism Prevention Agency providing security services for the national Israeli airlines and the Israeli Consulate in Los Angeles were administered the Subjective Stress Experience Scale (SSES). This scale measures stress at terrorism-prevention work, past stress during combat exposure, and subjects’ most stressful life events. Results support the hypothesis that terrorism prevention personnel who are also combat veterans appraise their work as less stressful than their noncombat exposed counterparts. Combat veterans also rated their combat experience as significantly more stressful than prevention team member’s other stressful life events. Subjects presented a uniform stress- inoculation effect but, combat veterans of the prevention team were more stress-inoculated than their noncombat exposed counterparts.     

The impact of sport and physical activity on the well-being of combat veterans: A systematic review

ObjectivesThis review examined the potential impact of sport and physical activity upon the subjective and psychological well-being of combat veterans in the aftermath of physical or psychological combat trauma.DesignA systematic review was conducted. The question guiding this review was ‘what is the impact of sport and physical activity on the well-being of combat veterans?’MethodsKey databases were searched for articles relating to the use of sport and/or physical activity in supporting combat veterans. 11 studies were identified as relevant for inclusion. Data from these studies were extracted by means of a directed content analysis, the results of which were reported in a narrative synthesis.ResultsSport and physical activity enhances subjective well-being in veterans through active coping and doing things again, PTSD symptom reduction, positive affective experience, activity in nature/ecotherapy, and quality of life. Impact on psychological well-being includes determination and inner strength, focus on ability and broadening of horizons, identity and self-concept, activity in nature/ecotherapy, sense of achievement/accomplishment, and social well-being. Participating in sport and/or physical activity can also enhance motivation for living.ConclusionsThe review advances knowledge by producing a synthesis of evidence that highlights the value of sport and physical activity for supporting the well-being and rehabilitation of disabled combat veterans and combat veterans diagnosed with Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder. It also develops knowledge by identifying the type of sports and physical activities used to promote well-being, offering the first definition of combat veterans in the sport literature, taking a critical approach, and highlighting the under researched role of nature-based physical activity.     

Forgotten warriors: an evaluation of the emotional well-being of presently incarcerated Vietnam veterans

The emotional well-being of a group of incarcerated Vietnam veterans within the maximum security section of a state prison was assessed along with comparison groups of veterans and nonveterans. The Multiple Affect Adjective Check List (MAACL) (Zuckerman & Lubin, 1965), the Adjective Check List (ACL) (Gough & Heilbrun, 1983), and the Military Life Questionnaire (MLQ) (Panzarella, Mantell, & Bridenbaugh, 1978) were administered. Both the factors of incarceration and Vietnam experience proved significant on a number of MAACL, ACL, and MLQ measures, including depression, anxiety, hostility, and personal adjustment. The MLQ results also indicated that, compared to their nonincarcerated counterparts, the incarcerated veterans were more likely to be black, to have come from a less supportive family background, to have been assigned to an Army infantry combat unit, to have been injured in combat, and to have witnessed or been involved in the killing of enemy soldiers, prisoners, and civilians while in Vietnam. Many incarcerated veterans apparently began as poor prospects in terms of their social, economic, and interpersonal well-being. They went to Vietnam, bore the brunt of these experiences, and emerged as even poorer prospects, all the more at risk and prone to incarceration.     

Faces in the face of death: Effects of exposure to life-threatening events and mortality salience on facial expression recognition in combat and noncombat military veterans

Soldiers in war zones often experience life-threatening events that put their lives at stake. The present study examined how these exposures shape soldiers' social behavior, manifested by recognition of facial expressions. In addition, we investigated how explicit awareness of one's eventual death affects sensitivity to facial expressions. Veterans of elite military combat units were exposed to conditions of mortality or pain salience and later requested to label the emotions depicted in threatening and nonthreatening faces. Combat veterans were more accurate than noncombat veterans in identifying threatening expressions, both in mortality or pain salience induction (Experiment 1) or under no induction at all (Experiment 2). In addition, noncombat veterans primed with mortality salience identified fear expressions more accurately than those primed with pain salience. Finally, mortality salience improved accuracy for nonthreatening expressions for all veterans. The present results demonstrate that fear of death, resulting from exposure to concrete life-endangering perils or from thoughts on human's inevitable death, influences perception of facial expressions, which is critical for successful interpersonal communication. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved).     

The Political Consequences of Combat: Post‐Traumatic Stress and Political Alienation Among Vietnam Veterans

On average, veterans are more civically and politically engaged than civilians. Previous research on the effects of military service, however, did not account for differences in veterans’ combat experiences. Using survey data from a representative sample of Vietnam veterans, this study presents evidence that veterans who were exposed to severe combat trauma and veterans who exhibited attitudes and fears associated with post‐traumatic stress had significantly lower levels of political efficacy and trust. The negative consequences of combat exposure and post‐traumatic stress are not mitigated when veterans have quality social support or when they seek professional counseling. These findings inform political psychology and hold implications for claims regarding the empowering influence of service in the U.S. military, increased political engagement, in particular. Among Vietnam veterans, exposure to severe combat trauma and post‐traumatic stress were both associated with reduced political efficacy and trust.     

Sleep Disturbances Among Combat Military Veterans: A Comparative Study Using Subjective and Objective Sleep Assessments

The sleep characteristics of 37 military veterans and active-duty service members (17 with PTSD and 20 without PTSD) of recent wars were analyzed to determine if combat deployment, with its associated sleep restriction, may be an alternative explanation for the sleep complaints found among combat veterans with PTSD (as determined by PTSD Checklist Military Version scores). Over a 1-week period, sleep data were collected using sleep actigraphy and self-report. Across the entire sample, subjective and objective assessment methods of sleep were strongly correlated, although there were some notable within-group differences. Specifically, although sleep duration between groups did not differ based on actigraphy, veterans without PTSD reported sleeping 1 h and 11 min (p = .002) longer than did veterans with PTSD. In an effort to determine why individuals without PTSD might be overreporting sleep, we found that symptoms of emotional arousal (anger, anxiety, and nightmares) were significantly correlated with self-reported sleep duration, suggesting a pattern of higher autonomic arousal found in veterans with PTSD. Thus, although sleeping for 6 h, the higher levels of emotional arousal reported by veterans with PTSD may mean that they do not perceive their sleep as restful. Further research is necessary to determine if the sleep architecture of veterans with PTSD is actually different from that of combat veterans without PTSD and if such differences are actually amenable to standard behavioral treatments for this disorder.     

Post-traumatic stress disorder and hiring: The role of social media disclosures on stigma and hiring assessments of veterans

A significant percentage of veterans suffer from post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). Veterans are often directed to social media platforms to seek support during their transition to civilian life. However, social media platforms are increasingly used to aid in hiring decisions, and these platforms may make veterans’ PTSD more discoverable during the hiring process. Based on social identity theory and identity management theory, the integrated suspicion model, and the stigma literature, we conducted four studies that examine veterans’ PTSD disclosures on social media and the consequences in the hiring process. Study 1 suggests that 16%–34% of veterans included cues related to PTSD status on social media. Study 2, based on 290 upper-level business students, shows that veterans with PTSD were more stigmatized than veterans without PTSD, and stigmatization is associated with more suspicion and lower hiring-related ratings (of expected task performance, expected organizational citizenship behaviors (OCB), expected counterproductive work behaviors (CWB), and intention to interview). Study 3, based on 431 working professionals with hiring experience, further supports relationships from Study 2. Study 4, based on 298 working professionals, identifies peril (i.e., perceptions regarding danger) as an additional mediator for the effects of PTSD on hiring-related ratings. In sum, we identify and explore the identity management conundrum that social media disclosure poses for veterans with PTSD in the hiring process and discuss potential remedies and avenues for future research.     

Military Service and Stability in the Family Course

This study explores the popular thesis that the Vietnam War had severe disruptive influences on the marriages of veterans. Analysis of life-history data from 2,303 White men who graduated from Washington State high schools in 1966 and 1967 -just before the height of the Vietnam War - shows that the Vietnam combat veterans (n = 627) were more likely to marry than were noncombat veterans who served during the Vietnam era (n = 586) or nonveterans. We found no long-term evidence of a destructive impact of Vietnam combat service on life-course sequencing or veterans' first marriages. When marital duration and other covariates were taken into account, military service reduced the probability of marital dissolution for White men. This study corroborates Card's (1983) findings for veterans who served prior to the intense combat period.     

Behavioral Health Adjustment in Reserve Component Soldiers During a Noncombat Deployment to Africa

This study benchmarked rates of mental health problems, adjustment difficulties, and perceptions of unit climate among 505 U.S. soldiers (primarily National Guard) deployed to the Horn of Africa in 2012. In addition, the study examined whether differences across these outcomes exist between combat veterans (n = 239) and noncombat veterans (n = 242). Rates of mental health problems among soldiers on this noncombat deployment were lower than rates typically found among soldiers on combat deployments. Furthermore, soldiers without previous combat experience had lower rates of mental health problems and aggression than combat veterans. Similar differences were evident when adjustment difficulties and unit climate variables were compared. Although combat veterans could be valuable in training new soldiers, the results of this study indicate that combat veterans may need more targeted resources to facilitate their adjustment if they are to be optimally utilized.     

Examining Relationships Among Ethnicity,PTSD, Life Functioning,and Comorbidity in Female OEF/OIF Veterans

There is much literature on posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and male combat veterans, but little on PTSD by gender and ethnicity among women combat veterans. We examine ethnic differences in PTSD and comorbid disorders among 37 Hispanic, 27 White, and 15 Native female Operaton Enduring Freedom/Operation Iraqi Freedom (OEF/OIF) combat veterans. Participants completed the Clinician-Administered PTSD Scale (CAPS), the Structured Clinical Interview for DSM-IV, Axis I (SCID-Axis I and II), Life Events Checklist (LEC), Military Stress Exposure Questionnaire (MSEQ), and the Medical Outcomes Study Short Form-36 (SF-36). Hispanics differed from Whites in having less education, more trauma exposure, higher levels of PTSD, mood disorder comorbidity, and poorer physical and emotional functioning. Natives differed from Whites with more trauma exposure, higher levels of PTSD, poorer emotional functioning, and higher rates of Cluster B PDs.     

Androgyny and Adjustment in Later Life: Living in a Veterans' Home

This study builds on literature that suggests that interaction with friends in later life is important to the well-being of older adults and other research that argues that androgynous individuals may have a greater range of social skills with which to further their adjustment. We apply these arguments to later life through interviews from a pilot sample of 27 residents in a state-operated veterans' home. Findings suggest that women, who often hold high expectations for the interpersonal domain, are more likely to experience adjustment problems than are men. Men, who may have lower expectations for friendship and intimacy, seem less likely to report dissatisfaction, regardless of gender characteristics. A typology of adjustment and androgyny in later life is developed.     

The Politics of Trauma Studies: What Can We Learn From Women Combatants' Experiences of Traumatic Events in Conflict Zones?

Wars, combat, and political developments triggered the study of trauma. Knowledge about trauma initially emerged from the experiences of men combatants in the battlefield. At a later stage, the study of trauma focused on women and children subject to violence and abuse. The current research suggests that additional aspects of trauma can be understood through the study of competent women exposed to traumatic events and not merely as victims of war or abuse. The study offers an analysis of women combatants' narratives of their exposure to traumatic events in conflict zones. Data were obtained from two focus groups and a series of 30 personal interviews of women veterans who served in the IDF. Interviewing women combat soldiers revealed a variety of narratives of their war experiences, including the intertwining of the emotional and the physical. The window to understanding the trauma was opened by analysis of the responses of the women combatants to potentially traumatic events rather than by focusing on post‐traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) per se. We emphasize the need for a critical perspective in the study of trauma and combat trauma and propose that there is value in engaging with and listening to diverse narratives of trauma.