The Relation Between Self-Report Mindfulness and Performance on Tasks of Sustained Attention

Validation of self-report mindfulness measures has been promising, although comparisons with non-self-report instruments are lacking. Because past research suggests that mindfulness training is associated with improved attention, this study predicted that higher self-report mindfulness would be positively related to performance on tasks of sustained attention. Fifty undergraduates completed the Mindful Attention Awareness Scale (MAAS), the Kentucky Inventory of Mindfulness Skills (KIMS), the Cognitive and Affective Mindfulness Scale, Revised (CAMS-R), and performed the Continuous Performance Test II (CPT-II) and the Paced Auditory Serial Addition Test (PASAT). Mindfulness scores, as measured by the MAAS and CAMS-R, were negatively related to target omissions on the CPT-II (ps ≤ 0.001), but were not related to PASAT performance (ps ≥ 0.11). Scores on the KIMS were not related to the CPT-II or PASAT (ps ≥ 0.15). Results suggest that self-report mindfulness is related to exaggerated lapses of attention, as measured by the CPT-II.     

Doing and Being: Mindfulness,Health, and Quiet Ego Characteristics Among Buddhist Practitioners

We examined the relationship between meditation experience, psychological mindfulness, quiet ego characteristics, and self-reported physical health in a diverse sample of adults with a range of Buddhist experience (N = 117) gathered from a web-based survey administered to Buddhist practitioners around the world between August 1, 2007 and January 31, 2008. Practicing meditation on a regular basis and greater experience with Buddhism was related to higher psychological mindfulness scores. Psychological mindfulness was correlated with a latent variable called “quiet ego characteristics” that reflected measures based on Bauer and Wayment’s (Transcending self-interest: psychological explorations of the quiet ego. American Psychological Association, Washington, DC, pp 7–19, 2008) conceptual and multidimensional definition of a “quiet ego”: wisdom, altruism, sense of interdependence with all living things, need for structure (reversed), anger/verbal aggression (reversed), and negative affectivity (reversed). In turn, quiet ego characteristics were positively related to self-reported health. Our findings provide continuing support for the key role psychological mindfulness may play in psychological and physical well-being.     

Psychometric assessment of the Mindful Attention Awareness Scale (MAAS) among Chinese adolescents

The Mindful Attention Awareness Scale (MAAS) has the longest empirical track record as a valid measure of trait mindfulness. Most of what is understood about trait mindfulness comes from administering the MAAS to relatively homogenous samples of Caucasian adults. This study rigorously evaluates the psychometric properties of the MAAS among Chinese adolescents attending high school in Chengdu, China. Classrooms from 24 schools were randomly selected to participate in the study. Three waves of longitudinal data (N = 5,287 students) were analyzed. MAAS construct, nomological, and incremental validity were evaluated as well as its measurement invariance across gender using latent factor analyses. Participants' mean age was 16.2 years (SD = 0.7), and 51% were male. The 15-item MAAS had adequate fit to the one-dimensional factor structure at Wave 1, and this factor structure was replicated at Wave 2. A 6-item short scale of the MAAS fit well to the data at Wave 3. The MAAS maintained reliability (Cronbach's α = .89-.93; test-restest r = .35-.52), convergent/discriminant validity, and explained additional variance in mental health measures beyond other psychosocial constructs. Both the 15- and 6-item MAAS scales displayed at least partial factorial invariance across gender. The findings suggest that the MAAS is a sound measure of trait mindfulness among Chinese adolescents. To reduce respondent burden, the MAAS 6-item short-scale provides an option to measure trait mindfulness.     

Mindfulness meditation improves cognition: Evidence of brief mental training

Although research has found that long-term mindfulness meditation practice promotes executive functioning and the ability to sustain attention, the effects of brief mindfulness meditation training have not been fully explored. We examined whether brief meditation training affects cognition and mood when compared to an active control group. After four sessions of either meditation training or listening to a recorded book, participants with no prior meditation experience were assessed with measures of mood, verbal fluency, visual coding, and working memory. Both interventions were effective at improving mood but only brief meditation training reduced fatigue, anxiety, and increased mindfulness. Moreover, brief mindfulness training significantly improved visuo-spatial processing, working memory, and executive functioning. Our findings suggest that 4 days of meditation training can enhance the ability to sustain attention; benefits that have previously been reported with long-term meditators.     

Effectiveness of an MP3 Christian mindfulness intervention on mindfulness and perceived stress

ABSTRACT

Mindfulness is enfolded in therapies addressing mental health conditions and is informed by secular and Buddhist models. However, mindfulness interventions can be rooted in other theoretical and spiritual frameworks including Christianity, which parallels Buddhist-based mindfulness practices. This study evaluates a mindfulness–based intervention drawing from Christian spiritual practices and discusses its practical implications. The researcher explored whether a Moving Picture Experts Group-3 (MP3)-based Christian mindfulness intervention would improve mindfulness states and decrease stress, measured by the Mindful Attention and Awareness Scale (MAAS) and Perceived Stress Scale (PSS), respectively. An analysis of covariance (ANCOVA) resulted in significant differences between pre- and post-test scores in experimental versus control groups on the MAAS and PSS after a 6–8-week intervention of a student sample (n?=?80) from two private, religiously-affiliated universities. Higher MAAS scores reflected improved mindfulness states, F(1,80)?=?11.947, p?=?.01 with a partial η^2?=?.134. Lower PSS scores reflect lowered perceived stress, F(1,80)?=?3.849, p?=?.053 with a partial η^2?=?.047.     

Mindfulness and positive affect: Cross-sectional,prospective intervention,and real-time relations

This study tested trait- and state-mindfulness and trait- and state-positive affect (PA) relations within a cross-sectional study (Study 1; N?=?174, 76% women, Mean (SD)_age?=?24 (2.7) years) and a randomized controlled 4-session mindfulness intervention study (Study 2; N?=?51, 65.4% women, Mean (SD)_age?=?25 (4.3) years). Study 1 : levels of trait-mindfulness and trait-like PA were related, as theorized, only among participants with meditation experience. Study 2 : Study 2 is a secondary analysis of a mindfulness intervention study [Tanay, Lotan, & Bernstein (2012). Salutary proximal processes and distal mood and anxiety vulnerability outcomes of mindfulness training: A Pilot preventive intervention. Behavior Therapy, 43, 492–505]. Unexpectedly, reduced levels of trait-like PA were observed pre- to post-intervention across conditions. No significant between-group mean differences were observed post-intervention. However, as expected, change in trait-mindfulness from pre- to post-intervention predicted change in trait-like PA among the intervention but not control condition. Second, levels of state-mindfulness during mindfulness meditation were positively related to levels of state-PA. The theoretical and applied implications of these findings for mindfulness and PA are discussed.     

Mindfulness Moderates the Relationship Between Disordered Eating Cognitions and Disordered Eating Behaviors in a Non-Clinical College Sample

Psychological flexibility and mindfulness are two related, but distinct, regulation processes that have been shown to be at the core of psychological wellbeing. The current study investigated whether these two processes independently moderated the association between disordered eating cognitions and psychological distress as well as the relation between disordered eating cognitions and disordered eating behaviors. Non-clinical, ethnically diverse college undergraduates completed a web-based survey. Of 278 participants (nfemale = 208; nmale = 70) aged 18–24 years old, disordered eating cognitions, mindfulness, and psychological flexibility were related to psychological distress after controlling for gender, ethnicity, and body mass index. Disordered eating cognitions and mindfulness accounted for unique variance in disordered eating behaviors. Finally, mindfulness was found to moderate the association between disordered eating cognitions and disordered eating behaviors.     

Does mindfulness improve inhibitory control in psychotic disorders? A randomized controlled clinical trial

Background/Objective: Impaired Inhibitory Control (IC) is a core feature of psychotic disorders and is related with impaired social functioning in people experiencing psychosis. Despite research showing the benefits of mindfulness over IC in the general population, no study has assessed its effects on IC in psychoses. The aim of our study was to assess the effectiveness of a mindfulness-based intervention combined with integrated rehabilitation treatment in a sample of people diagnosed of psychotic disorders. Method: Fifty-six patients diagnosed with psychotic disorder were recruited and randomly allocated either to integrated rehabilitation treatment or integrated rehabilitation treatment enhanced with 26 mindfulness group sessions. Measures comprised PANSS interview, MAAS scale, and Stroop Color Word Test (SCWT). The primary outcome variable was the performance in the non-congruent trials of the SCWT. Results: There were no differences between groups at baseline. At post-treatment patients allocated to mindfulness group increased their scores in non-congruent trials of SCWT and in MAAS. At post-treatment mindfulness group scored higher than integrated rehabilitation treatment in MAAS. Conclusions: Data suggest that mindfulness added to integrated rehabilitation treatment may improve IC in psychosis. Results are convergent with prior works about the effect of mindfulness over cognitive performance in general population.     

Components of Mindfulness in Patients with Chronic Pain

Methods of mindfulness are gaining increasing popularity within the behavioral and cognitive therapies and appear helpful for a range of clinical problems. The purpose of this study was to examine cognitive and behavioral processes underlying mindfulness. One hundred fifty patients seeking treatment for chronic pain completed a battery of questionnaires, including the 15-item Mindful Attention Awareness Scale (MAAS; Brown and Ryan, J Pers Soc Psychol 84:822–848, 2003). Preliminary analyses supported reliability and validity of the MAAS for patients with chronic pain. A confirmatory factor analysis provided incomplete support for a singe factor structure from the items of the MAAS. In turn, an exploratory factor analysis yielded a four-factor solution: Acting with Awareness, Present Focus, Responsiveness, and Social Awareness. Correlation and regression analyses indicated that the Acting with Awareness and Present Focus subscales were significantly related to measures of patient emotional, physical, and social functioning. Further research that explores and validates models of mindfulness-based processes is recommended.     

Mindfulness in Iran and the United States: Cross-Cultural Structural Complexity and Parallel Relationships with Psychological Adjustment

In theory, mindfulness has a role to play in resolving intercultural conflicts. This suggestion rests upon the relatively untested presumption that mindfulness operates similarly across cultures. In a test of this presumption, university students from two countries that are often in conflict at the governmental level, Iran (N = 723) and the United States (N = 900), responded to the Mindful Attention Awareness Scale (Brown and Ryan Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 84(4):822–848, 2003), along with an array of other psychological measures. This Mindfulness Scale displayed structural complexities in both societies, but a measurement invariant subscale was nevertheless identified. Similar cross-cultural evidence of concurrent validity was obtained in relationships with wide-ranging measures of adjustment. Nonsignificant linkages with Public Self-Consciousness and Self-Monitoring demonstrated discriminant validity in both societies. These data identified mindfulness as a cross-culturally similar psychological process that could plausibly have a role in resolving intercultural conflicts.     

The Five Factor Mindfulness Questionnaire in Norway

The aim of this study was to adapt the Five Factor Mindfulness Questionnaire (FFMQ) for use in Norway. Three studies involving three different samples of university students (mean age 22 years, total N = 792) were conducted. Confirmatory factor analyses showed that a five factor structure provided an acceptable fit to the data. All five factors loaded significantly on the overall mindfulness factor. As expected, correlations between the FFMQ total scores and subscales were positive and significant, ranging from 0.45 to 0.65. Correlations between FFMQ total/subscales and Mindful Attention Awareness Scale (MAAS) were significant and negative (since low scores on the MAAS indicate high mindfulness), ranging from r = ?0.17 to ?0.69. The Norwegian FFMQ total score was inversely correlated with all indicators of psychological health: neuroticism (r = ?0.61), ruminative tendencies (r = ?0.41), self‐related negative thinking (r = ?0.40), emotion regulation difficulties (r = ?0.66) and depression (r = ?0.46 to r = ?0.65). In contrast to the other FFMQ subscales, the FFMQ Observe subscale did not have a positive relation to psychological health in our mostly non‐meditating sample. However, being able to non‐judgmentally observe one's inner life and environment is a part of the mindfulness construct that might emerge more clearly with more mindfulness training. We conclude that the Norwegian FFMQ has acceptable psychometric properties and can be recommended for use in Norway, especially in studies seeking to differentiate between different aspects of mindfulness and how these may change over time.     

Measuring mindfulness—the Freiburg Mindfulness Inventory (FMI)

Mindfulness, a concept originally derived from Buddhist psychology, is essential for some well-known clinical interventions. Therefore an instrument for measuring mindfulness is useful. We report here on two studies constructing and validating the Freiburg Mindfulness Inventory (FMI) including a short form. A preliminary questionnaire was constructed through expert interviews and extensive literature analysis and tested in 115 subjects attending mindfulness meditation retreats. This psychometrically sound 30-item scale with an internal consistency of Cronbach alpha = .93 was able to significantly demonstrate the increase in mindfulness after the retreat and to discriminate between experienced and novice meditators. In a second study we broadened the scope of the concept to 86 subjects without meditation experience, 117 subjects with clinical problems, and 54 participants from retreats. Reducing the scale to a short form with 14 items resulted in a semantically robust and psychometrically stable (alpha = .86) form. Correlation with other relevant constructs (self-awareness, dissociation, global severity index, meditation experience in years) was significant in the medium to low range of correlations and lends construct validity to the scale. Principal Component Analysis suggests one common factor. This short scale is sensitive to change and can be used also with subjects without previous meditation experience.     

Incremental Validity of Components of Mindfulness in the Prediction of Satisfaction with Life and Depression

Self-report measures of mindfulness have consistently demonstrated positive relationships with well-being and inverse relationships with depression symptoms. The goal of this study was to extend the existing literature to include a test of the incremental validity of the components of mindfulness (as measured by the four factors of the Kentucky Inventory of Mindfulness Skills [KIMS]; Baer et al. Assessment, 11, 191–206, 2004) and the Mindful Attention Awareness Scale (MAAS; Brown and Ryan Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 84, 822–848, 2003) in the prediction of satisfaction with life (relative to self-esteem) and depression (relative to negative cognitions) among a sample of 365 college students. Results revealed only KIMS Observe accounted for a significant amount variance relative to self-esteem in the prediction of satisfaction with life, and in the prediction of depression symptoms, only KIMS Accept without Judgment accounted for a significant amount of variance relative to negative cognitions. These results are discussed in relation to the measurement of mindfulness and methods used to assess the validity of these scales.     

The protective effects of brief mindfulness meditation training

Mindfulness meditation has gained a great deal of attention in recent years due to the variety of physical and psychological benefits, including improved working memory, decreased mind wandering and reduced impact of stress on working memory. The current study examined a 1-week at home mindfulness meditation intervention compared to an active control intervention. Results suggest that mindfulness meditation does not increase working memory or decrease mind wandering but does prevent stress related working memory impairments. Mindfulness meditation appears to alter the factors that impair working memory such that the negative impact of mind wandering on working memory was only evident at higher levels of negative affect. The use of cognitive mechanism words in narratives of stressful events did not differ by condition but predicted poorer working memory in the control condition. The results support the use of an at home mindfulness meditation intervention for reducing stress-related impairments.     

Mindfulness training modifies subsystems of attention

Mindfulness is defined as paying attention in the present moment. We investigate the hypothesis that mindfulness training may alter or enhance specific aspects of attention. We examined three functionally and neuroanatomically distinct but overlapping attentional subsystems: alerting, orienting, and conflict monitoring. Functioning of each subsystem was indexed by performance on the Attention Network Test (ANT; Fan, McCandliss, Sommer, Raz, & Posner, 2002). Two types of mindfulness training (MT) programs were examined, and behavioral testing was conducted on participants before (Time 1) and after (Time 2) training. One training group consisted of individuals naive to mindfulness techniques who participated in an 8-week mindfulness-based stress reduction (MBSR) course that emphasized the development of concentrative meditation skills. The other training group consisted of individuals experienced in concentrative meditation techniques who participated in a 1-month intensive mindfulness retreat. Performance of these groups was compared with that of control participants who were meditation naive and received no MT. At Time 1, the participants in the retreat group demonstrated improved conflict monitoring performance relative to those in the MBSR and control groups. At Time 2, the participants in the MBSR course demonstrated significantly improved orienting in comparison with the control and retreat participants. In contrast, the participants in the retreat group demonstrated altered performance on the alerting component, with improvements in exogenous stimulus detection in comparison with the control and MBSR participants. The groups did not differ in conflict monitoring performance at Time 2. These results suggest that mindfulness training may improve attention-related behavioral responses by enhancing functioning of specific subcomponents of attention. Whereas participation in the MBSR course improved the ability to endogenously orient attention, retreat participation appeared to allow for the development and emergence of receptive attentional skills, which improved exogenous alerting-related process.     

The Latent Structure of Youth Responses to Peer Provocation

This study examined whether the three categories often applied to children’s behavior—aggressive, avoidant, and assertive—actually capture the structure of a naturalistic sample of youth behavior coded at a more micro level. A sample of lower-income youth (N = 392; M age = 12.69, SD = 0.95) completed a new multiple-choice measure asking them to select responses to scenarios depicting physical, verbal, and relational provocation by a peer. Youth responses to the vignettes showed the expected associations with self-reported aggression and regulation of anger, providing preliminary evidence for the convergent validity of the measure. Factor analysis confirmed that responses loaded on three factors: aggression, avoidance, and assertion. Model fit was adequate (RMSEA = .028) and cross-validated in a second sample (RMSEA = .039). Several types of responses loaded on two factors suggesting that some strategies that youth use to manage provocation are not “pure” examples of these broadband categories. Implications for conceptualization and measurement of youth social behavior are discussed.     

Greater efficiency in attentional processing related to mindfulness meditation

In this study, attentional processing in relation to mindfulness meditation was investigated. Since recent studies have suggested that mindfulness meditation may induce improvements in attentional processing, we have tested 20 expert mindfulness meditators in the attention network test. Their performance was compared to that of 20 age- and gender-matched controls. In addition to attentional network analyses, overall attentional processing was analysed by means of efficiency scores (i.e., accuracy controlled for reaction time). Better orienting and executive attention (reflected by smaller differences in either reaction time or error score, respectively) were observed in the mindfulness meditation group. Furthermore, extensive mindfulness meditation appeared to be related to a reduction of the fraction of errors for responses with the same reaction time. These results provide new insights into differences in attentional processing related to mindfulness meditation and suggest the possibility of increasing the efficiency in attentional processing by extensive mental training.     

The Affective Style Questionnaire: Development and Psychometric Properties

Affective style is an individual difference variable that refers to tendencies for regulating emotions. The emotion research literature has consistently identified three general strategies to handle emotional reactions: some strategies are aimed at re-adjusting affect to adapt successfully to situational demands; other strategies are intended to conceal or suppress affect; and a third approach is to tolerate and accept emotions, including unwanted and aversive reactions. We conducted two studies to develop a self-report measure to assess these affective styles. In the first study (n = 434), a list of 127 items related to this construct was administered. A factor analysis supported three factors: habitual attempts to conceal or suppress affect (Concealing subscale; 8 items), a general ability to manage, adjust, and work with emotions as needed (Adjusting subscale; 7 items), and an accepting and tolerant attitude toward emotions (Tolerating subscale; 5 items). The scale showed satisfactory internal consistency. Furthermore, the respective subscales showed different patterns of relations with existing instruments measuring similar constructs. Findings were cross-validated in an independent sample (n = 495). The factor structure and results of psychometric analyses were replicated. The final 20-item Affective Style Questionnaire is a brief instrument to measure individual differences in emotion regulation.     

Mindfulness and self-compassion as predictors of psychological wellbeing in long-term meditators and matched nonmeditators

Mindfulness training has well-documented effects on psychological health. Recent findings suggest that increases in both mindfulness and self-compassion may mediate these outcomes; however, their separate and combined effects are rarely examined in the same participants. This study investigated cross-sectional relationships between self-reported mindfulness, self-compassion, meditation experience, and psychological wellbeing in 77 experienced meditators and 75 demographically matched nonmeditators. Most mindfulness and self-compassion scores were significantly correlated with meditation experience and psychological wellbeing. Mindfulness and self-compassion accounted for significant independent variance in wellbeing. A significant relationship between meditation experience and wellbeing was completely accounted for by a combination of mindfulness and self-compassion scores. Findings suggest that both mindfulness and self-compassion skills may play important roles in the improved wellbeing associated with mindfulness training; however, longitudinal studies are needed to confirm these findings.