社会阶层心理学视角下的公平研究

社会阶层代表了一个人拥有的社会资源和对自己所处社会等级的感知。社会阶层因其概念的独特性、功能的广泛性、影响的深刻性和结论的系统性, 成为了心理学中的前沿热点领域, 目前主要有劳动、健康心理、社会文化、等级和社会认知五种研究视角。基于现有视角对社会阶层与社会公平的关系研究相对较少, 从社会认知视角出发, 围绕着不同阶层感知公平的差异、社会公平对不同阶层的影响作用以及低阶层感知不公平的应对策略三个方面开展了研究。未来研究可以从概念辨析、理论整合、加强应用研究等角度来推进社会阶层心理学的发展。     

社会阶层的心理学研究：社会认知视角

社会阶层是心理学研究的一个新的前沿领域,是指由于经济、政治等多种原因而形成的,在社会层次结构中处于不同地位的群体,这些群体之间存在着客观的社会资源（收入、教育和职业）的差异,以及感知到由此造成的社会地位的差异。基于社会认知视角的社会阶层理论认为,处于同一阶层中的个体,由于共享的经历,形成了相对稳定的认知倾向,低阶层者是情境主义的,高阶层是唯我主义的。大量的实证研究进一步证实,环境所导致的认知倾向差异,使得高低阶层这在感知自我、他人和社会的方式存在显著的不同。而阶层的流动性对个体心理与行为的影响以及本土化的社会阶层心理学研究是需要未来深入探索的研究方向。     

心理学研究中社会阶层的操作化界定及其衍生问题

个体的社会阶层反映了其所掌控的客观社会资源(即客观社会阶层)和其主观上所感知到的自身社会地位(即主观社会阶层)的水平。收入(或财产)、职业、受教育程度是研究中常用来反映客观社会阶层的操作化指标。而主观社会阶层的操作化界定既包括对主观阶层进行问卷测量,也包括对其加以实验操纵。心理学研究要基于研究目的以及要考察的具体效应与机制对不同的操作化界定加以取舍,有时也要综合兼顾多种操作化方式。通过选取典型群体来代表不同阶层,这种做法宜慎重采用。同时研究的信效度问题有必要更多加以重视。未来研究应加强关注阶层认同偏差与阶层纵向流动等基础问题,以及因取样偏差而带来的阶层效应被简化的现象,并结合跨文化视角分析不同文化下社会阶层的内涵差异。     

低家庭社会阶层大学生为何更容易社交焦虑？——心理社会资源和拒绝敏感性的多重中介作用

在阶层的社会认知理论和备用容量模型框架下,探讨心理社会资源、拒绝敏感性在家庭社会阶层与大学生社交焦虑间的多重中介作用。选取1400名在校大学生为被试,采用与积极心理变量结果相关度最高的乐观、控制感、自尊和外向性四种人格特质问卷作为心理社会资源的测量工具,同时施测了MacArthur主观社会阶层量表、拒绝敏感性问卷、Liebowitz社交焦虑量表,还收集了被试的父母亲职业、受教育程度及月收入水平等客观家庭社会阶层指标。Bootstrap中介效应检验结果表明,家庭社会阶层显著负向预测大学生社交焦虑,心理社会资源水平、拒绝敏感性在二者间起到中介作用,同时家庭社会阶层还顺序性地通过先影响心理社会资源、再影响拒绝敏感性这一链式路径对社交焦虑产生影响。因此为了预防和干预低阶层大学生社交焦虑,未来可以考虑提升心理社会资源水平和降低拒绝威胁敏感性两种途径。     

低家庭社会阶层大学生为何更容易社交焦虑？——心理社会资源和拒绝敏感性的多重中介作用

在阶层的社会认知理论和备用容量模型框架下,探讨心理社会资源、拒绝敏感性在家庭社会阶层与大学生社交焦虑间的多重中介作用。选取1400名在校大学生为被试,采用与积极心理变量结果相关度最高的乐观、控制感、自尊和外向性四种人格特质问卷作为心理社会资源的测量工具,同时施测了MacArthur主观社会阶层量表、拒绝敏感性问卷、Liebowitz社交焦虑量表,还收集了被试的父母亲职业、受教育程度及月收入水平等客观家庭社会阶层指标。Bootstrap中介效应检验结果表明,家庭社会阶层显著负向预测大学生社交焦虑,心理社会资源水平、拒绝敏感性在二者间起到中介作用,同时家庭社会阶层还顺序性地通过先影响心理社会资源、再影响拒绝敏感性这一链式路径对社交焦虑产生影响。因此为了预防和干预低阶层大学生社交焦虑,未来可以考虑提升心理社会资源水平和降低拒绝威胁敏感性两种途径。     

健康的贫富差距及其内在机制

健康的贫富差距是指不同社会经济地位的群体在各种健康指标上的系统差异。在过去30余年间, 国外研究揭示了社会经济地位与各种健康指标的负向关系, 并从环境特征和个人特征两个层面对健康的贫富差距做出了解释。以实证证据为基础, 研究者提出了社会文化自我模型、储备能力模型和生物−心理−社会整合模型等理论模型, 尝试从综合的视角理解健康的贫富差距。未来研究应该从多学科跨领域的视角, 使用多样化的研究方法和统计技术深化对健康的贫富差距内在机制的理解, 充分考虑社会文化背景的影响和个体差异的存在, 为促进我国的健康公平实践工作提供切实有效的理论指导。     

从毕生发展的视角看健康的贫富差距

健康的贫富差距是所有个体从出生到死亡都需要面对的现实, 也是全球所有国家都存在的社会问题。目前已经有相当的理论和实证研究尝试从毕生发展的视角理解健康的贫富差距。在毕生发展研究中, 健康的贫富差距有其独特的概念和测量方式。该领域重要的理论包括累积优(劣)势假设、累积不公平模型和社会阶层文化周期模型。研究者就儿童期、青少年期、成年期和老年期的健康贫富差距开展了大量的实证研究。未来毕生发展研究和实践的可能方向包括早年和当前社会经济地位的交互作用、社会经济地位的稳定特征和情境效应、跨领域实践干预等。毕生发展视角的健康贫富差距研究有助于理解健康贫富差距的发展根源和形成过程, 是促进国民健康和开展健康公平实践工作的理论基础。     

阶层刻板印象：后效及其理论解释

阶层刻板印象是以阶层为分类依据,形成的关于不同阶层的固定心理图式,其内容具有一定的规律性。阶层刻板印象在阶层互动中具有重要作用,广泛地影响人们的认知、情感和行为。偏差地图理论强调阶层刻板印象对阶层互动的直接影响,同时解释了阶层刻板印象的积极和消极后效。制度正当化理论强调阶层刻板印象作为维持现实合法性的心理工具,对阶层互动的间接影响,主要解释阶层刻板印象的积极后效。未来研究需要进一步明确阶层刻板印象的研究取向与操纵性定义,拓展阶层刻板印象的后效及其干预策略,并整合阶层刻板印象后效的理论解释。     

达者何以兼济天下：高阶层再分配偏向的心理机制及谦卑的作用

一些欧美研究发现高阶层者与低阶层者相比再分配偏向更低, 但是这一结论尚缺少跨文化一致性的证据, 而且对于这一现象的心理机制和干预策略的探讨也相对不足。基于此, 本研究通过3个子研究分别来关注我国民众再分配偏向的阶层差异及其心理机制, 并探讨可能的干预策略。结果发现：(1)与西方社会的情形相似, 在中国社会高阶层者的再分配偏向也显著低于低阶层者; (2)社会阶层对再分配偏向的影响, 部分是通过贫富差距归因倾向起作用的：与低阶层者相比, 高阶层者更倾向于将贫富差距归因于能力、努力、志向或抱负等个体内部因素, 进而再分配偏向更低; (3)通过启动高阶层者谦卑的心态, 能够降低其贫富差距内归因倾向, 进而提升其再分配偏向。此结果验证了社会阶层不平等维持模型的重要观点, 同时也为推动社会再分配、促进发展成果共享等提供了一定的社会治理启示。     

主观阶层研究取向的贡献与弊端

近年来社会阶层心理学研究领域对于主观阶层的研究取向高度重视, 突出表现为强调社会阶层概念中的主观阶层成分, 在理论阐述、概念测量、研究设计和研究问题选择上都倾向于关注主观阶层。这一取向为社会阶层心理学的发展奠定了基础, 也扩展了该领域的研究方法及关注问题的视野。但它也造成了部分研究在理论层面与社会现实有所脱节、在概念层面过于忽视客观阶层、在方法层面过于依赖操纵主观阶层, 以及在问题层面只关注高低二元阶层划分、对现实阶层多样性关注不足等弊端。未来应进一步深入开展基础研究以厘清客观阶层和主观阶层的关系及其不同的预测效应, 在研究设计时对于客观阶层和主观阶层进行更细化的区分, 同时可以更多关注于现实中的具体社会问题。     

Self psychology in pastoral counseling

This article provides a general explication of how a pastoral counselor might use the self psychology perspective in conjunction with theological and ethical approaches. A particularly appropriate structure for this explication is self psychology's theory and practice of psychoanalytic psychotherapy as a two-phase process: an observation-understanding phase, in which empathic introspection is the central method, and an explanation-interpretation phase, in which by these empathic means the therapist hopes to consolidate further and mobilize developmentally an individual or group's self-cohesion. Each of these phases and the self psychology theory behind them provide an organizing rubric by which we can discuss how theological and ethical approaches might be carried out in a working alliance with the self psychology framework.     

The Cooperative Research Centre for Living with Autism (Autism CRC) Conceptual Model to Promote Mental Health for Adolescents with ASD

Despite an increased risk of mental health problems in adolescents with autism spectrum disorder (ASD), there is limited research on effective prevention approaches for this population. Funded by the Cooperative Research Centre for Living with Autism, a theoretically and empirically supported school-based preventative model has been developed to alter the negative trajectory and promote wellbeing and positive mental health in adolescents with ASD. This conceptual paper provides the rationale, theoretical, empirical and methodological framework of a multilayered intervention targeting the school, parents and adolescents on the spectrum. Two important interrelated protective factors have been identified in community adolescent samples, namely the sense of belonging (connectedness) to school and the capacity for self and affect regulation in the face of stress (i.e. resilience). We describe how a confluence of theories from social psychology, developmental psychology and family systems theory, along with empirical evidence (including emerging neurobiological evidence), supports the interrelationships between these protective factors and many indices of wellbeing. However, the characteristics of ASD (including social and communication difficulties, and frequently difficulties with changes and transitions, and diminished optimism and self-esteem) impair access to these vital protective factors. The paper describes how evidence-based interventions at the school level for promoting inclusive schools (using the Index for Inclusion) and interventions for adolescents and parents to promote resilience and belonging [using the Resourceful Adolescent Program (RAP)] are adapted and integrated for adolescents with ASD. This multisite proof-of-concept study will confirm whether this multilevel school-based intervention is promising, feasible and sustainable.     

Mental Health Disparities,Treatment Engagement,and Attrition Among Racial/Ethnic Minorities with Severe Mental Illness: A Review

Mounting evidence indicates that there are mental health disparities in the United States that disadvantage racial/ethnic minorities in medical and mental health settings. Less is known, however, about how these findings apply to a particularly vulnerable population, individuals with severe mental illness (SMI). The aim of this paper is to (1) provide a critical review of the literature on racial/ethnic disparities in mental health care among individuals with SMI; (2) identify factors which may contribute to the observed disparities; and (3) generate recommendations on how best to address these disparities. Specifically, this article provides an in-depth review of sociocultural factors that may contribute to differences in treatment engagement and rates of attrition from treatment among racial/ethnic minorities with SMI who present at medical and mental health facilities. This review is followed by a discussion of specific strategies that may promote engagement in mental health services and therefore reduce racial/ethnic disparities in SMI.     

Spirituality,Gendered Subjectivities,and Education in Preadolescents: Canadian preadolescents' reflections on gender-roles and their sense of self

'Adolescents' spirituality' has emerged as a lively focus for discussion and research amongst both academics and practitioners. Yet remarkably little reference has been made to conceptions of the child provided by developmental educational psychology. To gain a holistic perspective of how preadolescents construct their sense of self, cultural meanings of sexuality and spirituality must also be examined. How do adolescents make the connections among a sense of body, self, and soul? What is the role of education? To address these issues, this paper draws on recent research that explored the connections between the self-concepts of Canadian preadolescents (9-12 year-olds) and their perceptions of their gender-role orientation. This paper undertakes an 'excavation' of psychocultural approaches to gender and language, and the mixed messages about early adolescent spirituality and gendered selves implicit in the respective understandings of psychological development. The examination of these theories unearths many points of resonance with contemporary debates about our expectations of the nature of spirituality and sexuality in preadolescence, and our interventions for its nurture. The paper examines gendered perceptions of femininity and masculinity in Canadian preadolescents and how these perceptions influence their self-worth or overall well-being. It focuses on the links between spirituality and gendered perceptions and understandings of emotions and self. The final section discusses the socio-educational implications of the research findings within the context of holistic education. In this way, dialogue with a psychocultural and holistic approach to psychology and education offers valuable additional vocabulary and grammar with which to tackle these challenges.     

The cultural in the social: A reflection on sociocultural models approaches

Culture is a critical concept for social psychology in Asia. The sociocultural models approach, as exemplified in this special issue, is a significant synthesis of the past work and a generative platform for future research. From the perspective of cultural dynamics, this commentary provides what I hope to be constructively critical reflections on this approach and attempts to point to potential directions for future investigation.     

Paradigms in the study of creativity: Introducing the perspective of cultural psychology

This article identifies three paradigms in creativity theory and research in psychology. The He-paradigm, focused on the solitary genius, has been followed, mainly after the 1950s, by the I-paradigm, equally individualistic in nature but attributing creativity to each and every individual. Extending this view, the We-paradigm incorporates what became known as the social psychology of creativity. The cultural psychology of creativity builds upon this last theoretical approach while being critical of some of its assumptions. This relatively new perspective, using the conceptual and methodological framework of cultural psychology, investigates the sociocultural roots and dynamics of all our creative acts and employs a tetradic framework of self - community - new artifact - existing artifacts in its conceptualization of creativity. The theoretical basis of the cultural psychology approach is analyzed as well as some of its main implications for both the understanding and study of creativity.     

Community Counselling in African Contexts

This article explores community counselling as a form of professional practice for psychologists, with a particular focus on practices that are relevant in African contexts. The discussion identifies and discusses various models of practice identified in community psychology, including an ecological perspective, a public health and community mental health framework, interventions that focus on promoting a sense of community, indigenous approaches to community counselling and a critical or social action framework. Examples relating to each of these models of practice are drawn from various African settings, providing practitioners with some insights into how theory can be operationalised into practices that are relevant to African contexts. The article concludes with a discussion on community research, with a particular focus on ethical considerations relevant to a community approach in African contexts. The latter discussion emphasises the importance of working with the community as partners, and suggests the possibility of developing a Code of Ethics aimed specifically at guiding community counselling practice in African contexts.     

Selves in contact: how integrating perspectives on sociocultural selves and intergroup contact can inform theory and application on reducing inequality

Research within cultural psychology and intergroup relations represent two, often separate and distinct, approaches to examining social groups—including outcomes and experiences that define and distinguish group membership and its consequences. Often, social group membership (e.g., race/ethnicity, gender, and social class) is tied to persistent and pervasive divides—separations that mark the difference in who attends college, stays in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) fields, and even views personal and societal events (e.g., microaggressions, police‐involved shootings) as involving bias. Addressing such complex and often divisive issues, psychological science has contributed theoretical and applied insights to mitigate social differences and inequalities experienced by historically disadvantaged social groups. The present paper integrates research on cultural psychology and intergroup relations by (a) reviewing empirical findings on sociocultural selves and intergroup contact and (b) considering how merging approaches from these literatures, using a selves in contact framework, can inform and elaborate theoretical perspectives and applications aimed at reducing inequality.