The Effects of Time Delays on Consumers' Use of Different Criteria for Product Purchase Decisions

Recent research has suggested that time delays might result in consumers' reliance on different sets of criteria in making product purchase decisions. A critical criterion among these factors is consumers' product category knowledge. The present study suggests that category knowledge mediates temporally distanced purchase decisions. When product category knowledge is retrieved, it has no or marginal immediate influence on consumers' decisions. However, retrieved product category knowledge has a substantial influence on consumers' decisions if these are delayed, that is, when decisions are made only after some time had elapsed since the exposure to product information. The function of product category knowledge within the decision predictors is conceptualized and demonstrated empirically. Its significance in the marketing reality which involves numerous decisions that are obtained in delay, is discussed.     

Preferences and Children's Use of Gender-Stereotyped Knowledge About Musical Instruments: Making Judgments About Other Children's Preferences

A developmental model of gender-stereotype acquisition (Martin, 1989) proposes that by the age of 8 years children draw upon information about gender-stereotyped interests as well as other children's sex when deciding how much other children would like different activities; younger children rely on sex only when making such decisions. We examined whether the judgments that children made about other children's preferences were different from those that they made about their own preferences for masculine and feminine musical instruments. Three hundred twelve children aged 8–9 years ranked 6 instruments in order of preference, and rated on a 4-point scale how much they would like to play each one. Children were then asked to decide how much other children would like to play each instrument. Only girls' own preferences for feminine instruments differed according to the gender-stereotyping of their most-preferred instrument. Judgments about how much other children would like masculine and feminine instruments did not differ according to those children's gender-stereotyped interest. Children made stereotypical predictions about the preferences of children of unknown sex who played either a masculine or feminine instrument. Implications for a theoretical account of the development of children's gender-stereotypes are discussed.     

Children's Decisions About Substance Use: An Application and Extension of the Theory of Reasoned Action1

This research examines the applicability of Fishbein and Ajzen's (1975) theory of reasoned action (TRA) to intentions to use cigarettes and alcohol among 5th- and 6th-grade students. It also addresses the question of unidimensionality of outcome beliefs and referent norms. Results suggest that the TRA model describes children's decision making well, although the ability of income and race to add to prediction, net of the effects of attitude and perceived norm, are contrary to the theory's prediction. In addition, we find support for multidimensional components of both attitude and norm for both behaviors.     

Capturing Children's Response to Parental Conflict and Making Use of It

To read this article's abstract in both Spanish and Mandarin Chinese, please visit the article's full-text page on Wiley InterScience ( http://interscience.wiley.com/journal/famp ).
The aim of our study is to examine the interface between children's physiological changes and the specificities of parental conflict, and to develop a procedure in which such information can be shared with the family for therapeutic change. Children from 20 families were exposed to parental conflict discussion (CD) while their arousals were measured through skin conductance and heart rate sensors. It was found that regardless of the subject of the argument, 80% of the time they were complaining about each other. Likewise, 80% of the time the children were responding to the parents' own interpersonal tension, including moments of silence. The protocol established for the study, consisting of CD and debriefing, was found to be a powerful tool in moving parents toward conflict resolution.     

Peer Ratings of Children's Assertive and Unassertive Behavior:

The purpose of this investigation was to explore children's judgements of peers' assertive and unassertive behavior in positive and negative interactions. Subjects were 142 third and fourth graders, 8 to 11 years of age. Stimulus materials were sets of three short videotaped scenes in which a female target child behaved either assertively or unassertively with a female peer. Four types of scenes were utilized: positive situations and assertive behavior (PA), positive situations and unassertive behavior(PU), negative situations and assertive behavior (NA), and negative situations and unassertive behavior (NU). Groups of 8 to 10 male and female subjects each viewed one set of scenes and then completed a 10-item questionnaire assessing their judgements of the target children's social skillfulness and likability. Results indicate that subjects rated assertive behavior in positive situations significantly higher than in negative situations for the majority of the items. Also, ratings for the PA and NU scenes and for the NA and PU scenes generally did not differ significantly. No significantly main effect of target child or gender of subject was demonstrated although some trends were noted. These findings strongly suggest that children's judgments of peers' assertive and unassertive behavior are situationally specific. Results of the present study have important implications for children's social skills training.     

Task-Oriented Versus Other-Referenced Competition: Differential Implications for Children's Peer Relations1

We conceptualized a multidimensional construct of competitiveness among children. In our model, competing in order to achieve task mastery is distinct from competition motivated by social comparison. Competition is further differentiated by domain, with a distinction between the physical and cognitive domains. Peer- and self-report measures were developed to measure these dimensions. In general, these factors emerged as well-defined and as having somewhat different implications for peer relations. There was little concordance between the peer-nomination and self-report data. The peer nominations indicated that task-oriented competition was generally associated with acceptance and prosocial behavior, whereas other-directed competition was generally associated with being liked less and being seen as aggressive. There was little corroboration of these links in the analyses based on the self-report data.     

临床肿瘤治疗决策的思考

肿瘤是一种全身性疾病,虽表现为局部的肿块,但其实质是全身免疫功能受损导致某些组织失去控制的异常生长,机体内部由于肿瘤的生长而发生了许多改变.肿瘤治疗的目的在于延长患者生存时间,即与疾病共生存.肿瘤并发症的治疗和术后肿瘤复发或再生的预防在改善生存方面发挥着重要作用.严格的技术准入和规范化治疗是提高治疗效果的保证.     

临床肿瘤治疗决策的思考

肿瘤是一种全身性疾病,虽表现为局部的肿块,但其实质是全身免疫功能受损导致某些组织失去控制的异常生长,机体内部由于肿瘤的生长而发生了许多改变。肿瘤治疗的目的在于延长患者生存时间,即与疾病共生存。肿瘤并发症的治疗和术后肿瘤复发或再生的预防在改善生存方面发挥着重要作用。严格的技术准入和规范化治疗是提高治疗效果的保证。     

Making Choices: Ethical Decisions in a Global Context

The changing milieu of research—increasingly global, interdisciplinary and collaborative—prompts greater emphasis on cultural context and upon partnership with international scholars and diverse community groups. Ethics training, however, tends to ignore the cross-cultural challenges of making ethical choices. This paper confronts those challenges by presenting a new curricular model developed by an international team. It examines ethics across a very broad range of situations, using case studies and employing the perspectives of social science, humanities and the sciences. The course has been developed and taught in a highly collaborative way, involving researchers and students at Zhejiang University, the Indian Institute of Technology, Bombay and Brown University. The article presents the curricular modules of the course, learning outcomes, an assessment framework developed for the project, and a discussion of evaluation findings.     

Evaluations of Tests Used for Making Selection and Promotion Decisions

Participants (N= 212) rated the fairness, job relevance, appropriateness, and invasiveness of 16 tests that could be used to select or promote people into production or management positions. Fairness, job relevance and appropriateness were highly correlated, and were combined to form a composite evaluation scale. Evaluations and invasiveness ratings varied among the 16 tests, with the most positive ratings given to interviews and work samples and the most negative ratings given to astrology, graphology and polygraphs. Evaluations of four tests were affected by the position (manager vs. production worker). Evaluations of 11 tests and invasiveness ratings of two tests were affected by respondent experience with the test. Respondents who had experienced the tests evaluated them more positively and considered them to entail a smaller invasion of privacy. Responses were not affected by whether the test was to be used for selection versus promotion decisions.     

The Use of Criteria in Decision Making Regarding the Placement of Hearing Impaired Children

This article investigates the relationship between the criteria used for placement by groups of placement team members and by groups of professionals in the area of education of hearing impaired children. Eight groups of subjects were asked to make decisions regarding the placement of hearing impaired children in simulated case studies and 26 Committees on the Handicapped were asked to place one simulated case in the committee setting. The placements were analyzed using multiple regression techniques. Results, as predicted, show that the various groups place relatively different importance on the variables, although several emerge as important to all groups. The analysis of committee placements indicates a tendency for placements more restrictive than those made in the individual task.     

Bidirectional Associations between Peer Victimization and Functions of Aggression in Middle Childhood: Further Evaluation across Informants and Academic Years

The current 3-wave study examined bidirectional associations between peer victimization and functions of aggression across informants over a 1-year period in middle childhood, with attention to potential gender differences. Participants included 198 children (51% girls) in the third and fourth grades and their homeroom teachers. Peer victimization was assessed using both child- and teacher-reports, and teachers provided ratings of reactive and proactive aggression. Cross-classified multilevel cross-lagged models indicated that child-reports, but not teacher-reports, of peer victimization predicted higher levels of reactive aggression within and across academic years. Further, reactive aggression predicted subsequent increases in child- and teacher-reports of peer victimization across each wave of data. Several gender differences, particularly in the crossed paths between proactive aggression and peer victimization, also emerged. Whereas peer victimization was found to partially account for the stability of reactive aggression over time, reactive aggression did not account for the stability of peer victimization. Taken together with previous research, the current findings suggest that child-reports of peer victimization may help identify youth who are risk for exhibiting increased reactive aggression over time. Further, they highlight the need to target reactively aggressive behavior for the prevention of peer victimization in middle childhood.     

Parental Perceptions of the Family and Children's Peer Relations

To study the relationship between American parents' perceptions of the family environment, themselves, and their children's peer relations with preschool peers, data was obtained from 56 boys and 47 girls between 47 and 59 months old and their parents. Questionnaires on perceptions of family cohesiveness, expressiveness, conflict, psychosocial competence of self, and acceptance of children were completed by the parents. Sociometric evaluations of peer ratings and positive and negative nominations among children were completed by the children. Correlations revealed both similarities and differences between father–child and mother–child patterns. In general, boys' peer ratings were related to parents' competence whereas girls' peer ratings were related to parents' cohesion. Positive nominations in boys and girls were related to parents' competence. Negative nominations in boys and girls were related to low acceptance and high conflict in parents. These data suggest important links between parents' perceptions of the family and children's peer relations.     

Subtypes of Victims and Aggressors in Children's Peer Groups

This study reports an investigation of the behavioral profiles and psychosocial adjustment of subgroups of victims and aggressors in elementary school peer groups. Peer nomination scores for aggression and victimization were used to classify 354 inner-city children (mean age of 10.3 years) into one of four subgroups: aggressive victims, nonaggressive victims, nonvictimized aggressors, and normative contrasts. Subgroup comparisons were then conducted using multi-informant assessment of social behavior, social acceptance-rejection, behavioral regulation, academic functioning, and emotional distress. Children in each of the victim-aggressor subgroups were characterized by a degree of social and behavioral maladjustment. However, impairments in behavioral and emotional regulation were most evident for the aggressive victim subgroup. Aggressive victims were also characterized by academic failure, peer rejection, and emotional distress. The results of this investigation highlight the distinctive nature of the aggressive victim subgroup.     

Successful Use of Peer Educators for Sharing Genetic Information

This study examined the impact of a genetics education module provided by Reach to Recovery peer volunteers. Participants included 113 women with confirmed breast cancer diagnoses. Eighty-eight of these women (78%) completed a baseline survey, participated in a peer-led intervention, and completed a follow-up survey. Approximately half of the women received an education module that included a genetic component, while the other half did not. Results indicated that women who received the genetics module had greater increases in genetics knowledge than the group that did not receive the module. However, follow-up interest in genetic testing was not significantly different between the two groups. Results indicate that a peer-led genetics module can increase knowledge about genetics. However, it does not appear to have a differential effect on genetic testing interest.     

Children's Criteria for Representational Adequacy in the Perception of Simple Sonic Stimuli

This article describes how children build increasingly abstract knowledge of linear measurement, emphasizing ways they relate space and number. Assessments indicate children struggle to understand measurement, especially concepts related to complex paths as in perimeter tasks. This article draws on developmental accounts of children's knowledge of measurement to describe the coordination of cognitive processes as a progression through increasingly abstract layers of strategy (Clements, 2003; Lehrer, 2003) within a constructivist perspective (Steffe &; Cobb, 1988; Steffe &; Thompson, 2000). This article reports 4 case studies from a 6-month teaching experiment with Grade 4 students to examine ways of promoting their strategy development. Attending to children's understanding of length along straight objects alone proved inadequate in predicting and validating models of children's developing strategies and concepts for perimeter. Setting perimeter tasks that emphasized integral relations among unit of length, sides of polygons and perimeter, and prompting children to integrate partitive, iterative, and counting schemes appeared to promote increasingly abstract length measurement strategies. The researchers came to distinguish between a naïve use of units to find length (Level 2a) and a more abstract strategy for unitizing and iterating (Level 2b), extending an earlier framework (Clements, Battista, Sarama, Swaminathan, &; McMillen, 1997). Finally, implications for instruction are drawn from the development of tasks and questioning sequences.     

Peer and self-rating: Children's perception of behavior relevant to hyperkinetic impulse disorder

Children answered a yes/no 50-item questionnaire on child behavior for each of 23 classroom peers. Cluster analysis of the data facilitated the organization of the items into six scales, each of which showed high internal consistency. The emergence of a cluster of items corresponding to the clinical concept of hyperkinetic impulse disorder was particularly clear, and the derived scale showed substantial convergent and discriminant validity when peer and self ratings were compared. This finding refutes the view that hyperactivity is merely a pejorative term used by adults about child behavior. Clusters describing clearly approved and disapproved behavior (Popular and Bully) did not show such validity. Crossvalidation of peer ratings against those of teachers and parents, on previously defined measures, was more limited. However, the higher correlation between peer and teacher ratings of behaviors relevant to hyperactivity than between peer and parent or teacher and parent ratings supports the view that hyperactiveinattentive behavior is determined interactively by the person and the situation, rather than being a context-general trait.This article is based on a paper presented to the 14th Annual Conference of the Australian Psychological Society, Hobart, Tasmania, August 1979. Preparation of the paper was supported by the Nuffield Foundation, England.     

The Use of Selection Criteria for Campus Interviews

This paper explores two research questions. What is the relative importance of academic criteria, work experience, demographic characteristics, and extracurricular activities on the decision to select applicants for job interviews in a college placement setting? Second, does the relative importance of criteria change across job types? Using a sample of 19 recruiters who screened applicants for campus interviews at a large state university, the study found that academic criteria were the most important screening criteria. However, there was great variance in the use of criteria across 19 recruiters. Job type accounted for some of this variance in relation to both academic criteria and demographic criteria.