Gender differences in adolescent self-esteem: an exploration of domains

The relationship between gender and global self-esteem in adolescence, while modest, has been well established, with boys consistently scoring higher than girls. In the present study, we sought to understand gender differences in adolescent self-esteem in terms of its component parts. With a relatively large (n = 545) sample of adolescents, drawn from Grades 8, 10, and 12, we specified 8 domains of adolescent self-esteem (personal security, home/parents, peer popularity, academic competence, attractiveness, personal mastery, psychological permeability, and athletic competence) across a number of different instruments and brought them together into a common assessment superstructure. Gender differences as well as the relative contributions of the different domains to overall self-esteem scores were measured. As predicted, boys attained slightly higher global self-esteem scores than girls did, by a difference of .22 standard deviation units. Contrary to our expectation of more balanced domain effects, boys significantly outperformed girls in 6 of 8 domains, whereas the 2 remaining domains exhibited no significant gender differences. There were no main or interaction effects for grade level. In terms of relative contribution of these domains to global self-esteem for the 2 genders, global self-esteem in boys and girls is predicted in very similar strengths and in the same order of magnitude by identical domains of self-esteem: home/parents, personal security, academic competence, attractiveness, and personal mastery--yielding multiple R2s from .88 to .91.     

Do gender differences in academic attainment correspond with scholastic attitudes? An exploratory study in a UK secondary school

Research has examined how standardized tests give rise to gender differences in English and STEM attainment, but little research has explored gender differences in classroom-based attainment and the degree to which these correspond to differences in school-related attitudes. To explore the extent to which gender-achievement gaps in classroom-based performance parallel differences in self-perceptions and scholastic attitudes. An independent sample of first (n = 187, age 11–12, Study 1) and second-year students (n = 113, age 12–13, Study 2) from a UK comprehensive secondary school completed a questionnaire measuring academic mindset, self-efficacy, self-concept, competence beliefs, personal and social self-esteem, and endorsement of gender-subject and career stereotypes. Responses were then matched to their respective classroom grades in English, mathematics, science, and computing. Girls outperformed boys in English in their first year but reported lower global self-esteem and greater endorsement of science-career stereotypes. Conversely, girls outperformed boys in mathematics in their second year, but paradoxically reported lower self-concept and competence beliefs in mathematics and science, and higher competence beliefs in English. Across both studies, mindset, self-efficacy, competence beliefs, and social self-esteem were positively related to English attainment; academic self-efficacy was positively related to mathematics attainment; and mindset, self-efficacy, self-concept, and competence beliefs were positively related to science attainment. Gender-achievement gaps in classroom-based academic attainment are complex and highly nuanced; they appear to vary between school subjects across years and may not correspond with similar differences in self-perceptions and scholastic attitudes.     

Global self-esteem,perceived athletic competence,and physical activity in children: A longitudinal cohort study

ObjectivesThe Exercise and Self-Esteem Model is used as a theoretical framework to describe associations between global self-esteem and physical activity, mediated by perceived athletic competence. We know little about how these associations develop over time in elementary school children. We examined the change in, and associations between, global self-esteem, perceived athletic competence, and moderate-to-vigorous physical activity (MVPA) in children from kindergarten to grade 4. We also investigated if this change and these associations were different for boys and girls.DesignA prospective longitudinal cohort-sequential design that consisted of two cohorts of children.MethodChildren in cohort I were followed from kindergarten to grade 2, and children in cohort II were followed from grade 2 to grade 4. Global self-esteem and perceived athletic competence were measured with the Self-Perception Profile for Children (SPPC) (n = 292; 148 boys), while MVPA was measured with proxy-reports for physical activity filled in by parents (n = 184; 88 boys).ResultsGlobal self-esteem, perceived athletic competence, and MVPA remained stable. Global self-esteem was the same in boys and girls, while boys reported higher levels of perceived athletic competence and were more physically active than girls. The change in global self-esteem was significantly associated with perceived athletic competence and MVPA in girls, but not in boys.ConclusionThere are few developmental changes in global self-esteem, perceived athletic competence, and MVPA from kindergarten to grade 4. The change in global self-esteem was associated with perceived athletic competence and MVPA in girls, but not in boys.     

Academic, motivational, and emotional correlates of adolescent dating

This study is an examination of the relationship between dating status and academic achievement, academic motivation, depression, and self-esteem; it is an investigation of the differential effects wielded by gender and age (grade level) of the dating adolescent in each of these domains. Participants were a relatively large gender-balanced adolescent group (N = 380) from Grades 8, 10, and 12. Dating status was studied first as a binary variable (frequent versus infrequent dating) and second as a dating spectrum, including steady, frequent, and infrequent dating. Results showed that adolescents who dated frequently (more than once or twice a month), whether they were boys or girls, relatively young (8th grade) or more mature (l0th and 12th grades), exhibited consistently and significantly lower levels of academic achievement and academic motivation and higher levels of depressive symptoms. There were no significant effects of dating status on global self-esteem, but, as hypothesized, subscale analyses revealed important subscale-differentiated effects.     

Adolescent Perceptions of Parental Behaviors,Adolescent Self-Esteem,and Adolescent Depressed Mood

Using symbolic interaction, we developed a research model that proposed adolescent perceptions of parental support and psychological control would be related to adolescent depressed mood directly and indirectly through self-esteem. We tested the model using self-report questionnaire data from 161 adolescents living with both of their biological parents. To examine possible gender of adolescent differences, we tested two multigroup models separately for adolescents’ perceptions of mothers’ and fathers’ parental behaviors. Both the fathers’ and mothers’ models yielded (a) direct paths from self-esteem to depressed mood (for boys and girls), psychological control to depressed mood (for boys) and (b) an indirect path from support to self-esteem to depressed mood (for girls and boys) and an indirect path from psychological control to self-esteem to depressed mood (for girls). In addition, in the fathers’ model a significant direct path was found between fathers’ support and depressed mood (for girls).     

An Examination of Gender Differences in Adolescent Adjustment: The Effect of Competence on Gender Role Differences in Symptoms of Psychopathology

Numerous studies have documented gender differences in psychopathology; girls generally report more internalizing symptoms and boys generally report more externalizing symptoms. These gender differences are partially accounted for by the gender-typed personality characteristics of boys and girls. This study was designed to investigate how gender roles influence symptoms of psychopathology by examining the mediating effects of self- and peer-rated competencies. Using a multiple regression approach to path analysis with a sample of primarily White, middle-class high school students, gender roles significantly predicted symptoms of psychopathology and mediated the gender differences in those symptoms. In addition, the adolescents' self- and peer-rated competence in various domains helped to explain the effect of gender roles on symptoms of psychopathology. Specifically, self-rated social attractiveness and global self-worth fully mediated the relation between instrumentality (i.e., masculinity) and internalizing symptoms. Global self-worth and both self- and peer-rated achievement/conduct partially mediated the relation between expressivity (i.e., femininity) and externalizing symptoms. Practical and theoretical implications are discussed.     

Harsh parenting and academic achievement in Chinese adolescents: Potential mediating roles of effortful control and classroom engagement

This study examined (a) the potential mediating roles of effortful control and classroom engagement in the association between harsh parenting and adolescent academic achievement, and (b) the potential moderating role of gender. Sixth through eighth graders in rural China (n = 815, mean age = 12.55 years) reported on harsh parenting, effortful control, and classroom engagement. Parents also reported on each other's harsh parenting. Academic achievement was assessed by students' test scores and teacher-rated academic performance. Results of structural equation modeling revealed gender differences in patterns of association among the model variables. Harsh parenting was negatively and directly associated with academic achievement for both boys and girls. It was also negatively and indirectly associated with academic achievement via effortful control and classroom engagement sequentially, forming a common indirect “path” for boys and girls. The indirect negative effect of harsh parenting on boys' academic achievement was mainly realized through the mediator of effortful control, whereas this same indirect effect for girls was mainly realized through the mediator of classroom engagement. Jointly, effortful control and classroom engagement precipitates more indirect effects for boys than for girls in the association between harsh parenting and academic achievement. The discussion analyzes the potential “paths” from harsh parenting to adolescent academic achievement, as well as gender differences in these “paths.” The current study has implications for teachers and parents eager to improve students' classroom engagement and academic achievement.     

Exploring a model linking social physique anxiety,drive for muscularity,drive for thinness and self-esteem among adolescent boys and girls

This study examined gender differences on body image measures, and tested a model where self-esteem influences social physique anxiety (SPA), which in turn influences drive for muscularity and drive for thinness in a sample of adolescents (N = 329; 58% boys). Multi-group invariance analyses indicated that the measurement and structural models were partially invariant for boys and girls, allowing for gender comparisons. Results indicated that boys reported significantly lower drive for thinness and SPA, and higher drive for muscularity and self-esteem compared to girls. The measurement and structural models were an adequate fit for the total sample. Findings supported the proposed sequence in which self-esteem significantly influenced SPA, and SPA significantly influenced the drives for muscularity and thinness. Interventions aimed at decreasing SPA, by promoting self-esteem, may be helpful in decreasing adolescent boys’ and girls’ drive for muscularity and thinness.     

Predicting changes in children's self‐perceptions from playground social activities and interactions

The general aim of this study was to examine the concurrent and longitudinal (6 month) associations between 8‐ to 9‐year‐old children's (N=75) social activities and interactions during recess and their self‐perceptions, and to test for gender differences in those associations. The underlying rationale was that recess provides an important, and hitherto unstudied, context in which children's experiences can impact on their views of themselves. Consistent with this proposition, several of the playground variables were significantly correlated concurrently with participants' self‐perceptions regarding social acceptance, and, particularly, athletic competence. Even stronger evidence came from the longitudinal analyses which indicated that group size positively predicted changes in social acceptance and global self‐worth scores; network positively predicted changes in physical appearance and global self‐worth scores; rule games positively predicted changes in athletic competence, physical appearance and global self‐worth scores; conversation negatively predicted changes in athletic competence, and alone negatively predicted changes in physical appearance and global self‐worth scores. Several significant gender differences were obtained: the association between rule games and changes in social acceptance was negative for girls but positive for boys; a positive association between conversation and social acceptance was evident among girls but not boys; and a negative association between conversation and changes in athletic competence was evident among boys but not girls. The theoretical and practical implications of these results are discussed.     

Changes in self‐perceptions of competence and intrinsic motivation among elementary schoolchildren

Background: Children's perceived competence and intrinsic motivation are assumed to be very high at the outset of schooling. However, how they change and how they relate to each other and to academic achievement across early schooling years remain open to question. Aims: This 3‐year longitudinal study was aimed at examining the following questions. Do children's perceived competence and intrinsic motivation about reading and mathematics change across the first 3 years of schooling? Do their perceived competence and intrinsic motivation differ according to academic domains? Do their perceived competence and intrinsic motivation relate to their academic achievement in each academic domain? Sample: A total of 115 elementary schoolchildren (63 boys and 52 girls) were examined in first grade (mean age = 84,5 months, SD = .67) and for the next 2 years. Method: Children responded to questionnaires about their perceived competence and intrinsic motivation in reading and mathematics. Year‐end grades in these two subjects were used as a measure of performance. Results: Changes in perceived competence and intrinsic motivation, and between‐year intercorrelations, were observed to differ according to academic domains and gender. Intrinsic motivation did not make a significant contribution to academic achievement at either school grade or in any academic domain, whereas perceived competence was significantly related to achievement at each school grade in both reading and mathematics. Conclusions: Differences between boys and girls observed in this study were not linked to a specific domain and cannot be attributed to gender‐role stereotypes. Girls appeared to be more precocious in differentiating their competence and intrinsic motivation according to academic domain, as well as in being able to process and integrate information about their ability from past performances in a domain to judge their competence in the same domain.     

Psychosocial Predictors of Psychological Distress in Taiwanese Secondary School Boys and Girls

This study was designed to investigate predictors of psychological distress in secondary school boys (n =779) and girls (n = 893) in Taiwan. Participants completed anxiety and depression scales as part of a larger study. Gender, GPA, parenting practices, self-esteem, and personality/satisfaction were significantly correlated with psychological distress. Significant gender differences were found in students' psychological distress, GPA, stereotyped thinking, academic self-expectations, parental expectations, parenting practices, and mother's education level. Stepwise regressions revealed that self-esteem was the only significant predictor for boys; it accounted for 40.9% of the variance in their psychological distress. GPA, family income, self-esteem, and parenting practices were significant predictors for girls; they accounted for 42.6% of the variance in girls' psychological distress. Research recommendations and educational implications are discussed.     

Physical self-perceptions and self-esteem in adolescents participating in organized sports and religious groups

Drawing on the exercise and self-esteem model (EXSEM), the current study examined associations between sport activities and aspects of the self-system among adolescent members of sport groups. Youths attending religious groups were included in the study to allow for a test of generalization. Participants were 595 adolescents (sport groups: n = 355, M_age = 15.09 years, SD = 1.49, 54.6% female; religious groups: n = 240, M_age = 15.67 years, SD = 1.44, 53.8% female) who completed a series of paper and pencil measures detailing their involvement in sport activities (sport group only), their self-efficacy beliefs in the physical domain, perceived sport competence and attractiveness, as well as global self-esteem. A structural model was tested for sport youth, specifying an effect of sport activities on self-efficacy that, in turn, was expected to predict subjective sport competence and attractiveness. Finally, the model postulated effects of competence and attractiveness on self-esteem. The model test revealed a good fit. Multi-group models considering type of leisure group and sex pointed to parallel patterns in the associations of self-efficacy, competence, attractiveness, and self-esteem in the subgroups.     

The Presentation of Masculinity in Everyday Life: Contextual Variations in the Masculine Behaviour of Young Irish Men

The present study was designed to examine longitudinal predictors of moral courage in late adolescence. Supportive, responsive parenting, which was measured through home observations and family reports in the fifth grade year, predicted girls’ willingness in late adolescence to speak up or take action when they witnessed or experienced injustice or harm. In contrast, parenting that was harsh and restrictive predicted both girls’ and boys’ later reticence in those circumstances. Further, the effects of earlier parenting were mediated by individual and peer-related factors. Specifically, social competence with peers in fifth grade and self-esteem in twelfth grade mediated the effects of parenting on both moral courage and moral reticence for late adolescent girls, and self-esteem in fifth grade mediated the effects of parenting on moral reticence for late adolescent boys.     

Gender differences in self-system processes as rated by teachers and students

A commonly held assumption about gender differences in children's perceptions of their academic competence is that girls underrate their abilities more than boys. The present study had two goals: to assess whether boys or girls are more likely to over- or underrate their academic competence, and to examine gender differences in self-system concomitants of discrepant appraisals. One hundred twelve 4th-6th-grade children rated themselves on overall self-worth, academic competence, self-regulatory style, anxiety, and coping with perceived failure. Six teachers rated these children on the same items. In addition, standardized achievement test scores were available for the children. Groups of over-, under-, and congruent raters were formed using teacher ratings as one comparison standard and achievement test scores as another comparison standard. The data show that when distortion in self-appraisal is derived from achievement test scores, girls are somewhat less likely to underrate their abilities than are boys. However, when distortion is derived from teacher ratings of competence, girls are more likely to underrate than boys and boys are somewhat more likely to overrate. Teachers rate boys who underrate themselves lower in competence than boys who overrate themselves, but they rate girls who underrate higher than girls who overrate. The commonly held assumption about girls' underrating of their academic competence is not borne out in this study. We believe it is important to examine differences between comparison standards and between children's and teacher's ratings to understand more fully gender differences in self-system concomitants of discrepant self-appraisals.The authors wish to thank James Connell for his important contributions to this article, and the Human Motivation Research Group (Ed Deci, Richard Ryan, and James Connell) for making their data available to us.     

The Mediating Roles of Adolescent Disclosure and Parental Knowledge in the Association Between Parental Warmth and Delinquency Among Korean Adolescents

The purpose of this study was to examine the association between parental warmth and adolescent delinquency, the potential mediating roles of adolescent disclosure and parental knowledge, and gender differences in such association among Korean adolescents. We hypothesized that (1) parental warmth would be significantly and negatively associated with delinquency, (2) adolescent disclosure and parental knowledge would mediate the association between parental warmth and adolescent delinquency, and (3) the association between parental warmth and adolescent delinquency mediated through adolescent disclosure and parental knowledge would be stronger for adolescent girls than boys. Using a sample of 3125 Korean adolescents from nationally representative and longitudinal data (Korea Youth Panel Survey), results from path analyses demonstrated that findings were consistent with US samples, suggesting a negative association between parental warmth and adolescent delinquency. Further, when Korean adolescents perceived parents to be warmer, they were more likely to disclose personal information to their parents. In turn, higher levels of disclosure were associated with higher levels of parental knowledge about their adolescent children’s activities. Finally, tests of gender differences suggested that parental warmth was more closely associated with adolescent disclosure among girls than boys. Results supported a process model through which parents may shape adolescent children’s delinquency.     

Vietnamese Adolescents in Australia: Relationships between Perceptions of Self and Parental Values,Intergenerational Conflict,and Gender Dissatisfaction

The present study examined traditional family and independence values among young Vietnamese respondents (N = 204), their perceptions of parents' values, and the impact of differential parent-adolescent acculturation on intergenerational conflict and gender satisfaction. The study confirmed that adolescents perceived that they had less traditional values than their parents. Traditional family values diminished with time spent in Australia while the value accorded to independence increased. This pattern was stronger for girls than for boys. Girls valued Vietnamese traditions less than did their male peers, regarded their parents as being less accepting of independence, and were more dissatisfied with their gender role than boys. For girls but not for boys, discrepancy between adolescent and parental values was associated with more conflict and greater gender dissatisfaction. This study suggests that girls have more difficulty than boys in dealing simultaneously with the expectations of two cultures.     

Global Self-Esteem in Technical/Vocational Versus General Secondary School Tracks: A Matter of Gender?

This article examines the consequences of being in a technical/vocational track for the global self-esteem of adolescents, with special attention to gender. The t-tests and multilevel analyses were performed with data from 3,720 Flemish fifth-year pupils—2,404 boys and 1,316 girls—in 33 secondary schools: 19 technical/vocational schools and 14 general schools. The analyses show that girls have significantly lower self-esteem than boys and that this gender effect suppresses a track effect. Analyses performed separately for boys and girls demonstrate that boys in technical/vocational schools have a significantly lower self-esteem than boys in general schools, but the analyses for girls show no difference for school type. Theoretical possibilities offer explanations for this gender difference in the consequences of being in a technical/vocational versus general track.     

Developmental patterns in body esteem from late childhood to young adulthood: A growth curve analysis

This study examines the long-term development of different domains of body esteem (BE), the most salient domain of adolescents' global self-esteem. The 11-year longitudinal study of Swedish youths, covering ages 10–21, showed that BE undergoes significant change from late childhood to young adulthood, with growth curve models revealing different developmental paths between domains and across gender. For girls, general appearance esteem and weight esteem decreased in the early adolescent phase and then stabilized. For boys, similar patterns were evident, but weight esteem was subject to change also in late adolescence. The third BE domain, appearance-evaluations ascribed to others, displayed a distinct developmental trajectory. This was the only domain where no gender differences were noted in terms of mean levels. It was also the only domain that demonstrated positive increases over time. Findings from the present long-term study contribute to a more coherent picture of the development of BE from late childhood and into young adulthood.     

Gender matters, too: the influences of school racial discrimination and racial identity on academic engagement outcomes among African American adolescents

The authors examined relationships among racial identity, school-based racial discrimination experiences, and academic engagement outcomes for adolescent boys and girls in Grades 8 and 11 (n = 204 boys and n = 206 girls). The authors found gender differences in peer and classroom discrimination and in the impact of earlier and later discrimination experiences on academic outcomes. Racial centrality related positively to school performance and school importance attitudes for boys. Also, centrality moderated the relationship between discrimination and academic outcomes in ways that differed across gender. For boys, higher racial centrality related to diminished risk for lower school importance attitudes and grades from experiencing classroom discrimination relative to boys lower in centrality, and girls with higher centrality were protected against the negative impact of peer discrimination on school importance and academic self-concept. However, among lower race-central girls, peer discrimination related positively to academic self-concept. Finally, socioeconomic background moderated the relationship of discrimination with academic outcomes differently for girls and boys. The authors discuss the need to consider interactions of individual- and contextual-level factors in better understanding African American youths' academic and social development.