Some Differences in Extinction by Normal and Whole-Body Irradiated Monkeys

Abstract

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Visual Acuity Performance of Normal and Chronic Focal-Head Irradiated Monkeys

The study reported by Griffiths, Shantz, and Sigel (4) on children's understanding of relational terms in conservation tasks is used in a case study to illustrate a number of problematic practices in the use of psychological literature. A number of examples are given that reflect a negligent or clearly inaccurate reading of the Griffiths et al. report. Common errors made by authors in citing the published research of others are failure to examine closely the study's methodology, uncritical acceptance of authors' conclusions, and misinterpretation or confusion of the study's findings.     

Discrimination Learning and Discrimination Reversal Learning in Normal and Feebleminded Children

Two studies compared methods of estimating factor scores for the Child's Report of Parental Behavior Inventory. In Study I, least squares factor scores for 5th and 6th graders were computed and correlated with estimates obtained by multiple regression, weighted summation, and unweighted summation with either (a) all scales best defining each factor, (b) the three best, or (c) the two best defining scales. All three estimation methods were highly accurate, and estimates obtained with three and even two scales per factor still correlated highly with the factor scores. In Study 11, factor scores for college students were correlated with estimates obtained by multiple regression and unweighted summation of the same subsets of scales. Again both estimation methods were highly accurate, and reducing the number of scales did not markedly reduce the correspondence of estimated scores to exact scores.     

Reversal Theory, Learning and Psychotherapy

The theory of psychological reversals, as developed by Apter and Smith, may give us clues as to how some important processes of learning operate, particularly the dynamics of self-actualisation tendencies. Implications are discussed for the approach to neurotic phenomena, for therapeutic practice in general and for crisis counselling in particular.     

An Analysis of Air-Stepping in Normal Infant Vervet Monkeys

Limb movements during air-stepping were analyzed in three neonatal vervet monkeys over a three-week period. The movements had similar temporal organization both across animals and across time. For example, the duration of both the hind and the forelimb cycle equaled about 500 ms, with the hind limb return strokes lasting much longer than the hind limb power strokes. Furthermore, there were clear indications of both intra- and interlimb coordination. Specifically, all the joints of a limb tended to flex and extend simultaneously, and contralateral and ipsilateral limb pairs had an average phase relationship of approximately 50% of cycle duration. Despite a qualitative similarity between limb movements during air-stepping in the neonates and overground locomotion in older animals, there were notable differences both in temporal relationships and joint displacement patterns. Finally, there appeared to be important similarities between air-stepping in these monkeys and stepping in newborn humans. Most notably, both tended to disappear after a limited period. The implications of these similarities, as well as the overall results, are discussed in relation to the understanding of the development of locomotor behavior in human and nonhuman primates, using approaches based both upon the hard-wired and dynamic models.     

Food Avoidance Learning in Squirrel Monkeys and Common Marmosets

Using a conditioned food avoidance learning paradigm, six squirrel monkeys (Saimiri sciureus) and six common marmosets (Callithrix jacchus) were tested for their ability to (1) reliably form associations between visual or olfactory cues of a potential food and its palatability and (2) remember such associations over prolonged periods of time. We found (1) that at the group level both species showed one-trial learning with the visual cues color and shape, whereas only the marmosets were able to do so with the olfactory cue, (2) that all individuals from both species learned to reliably avoid the unpalatable food items within 10 trials, (3) a tendency in both species for quicker acquisition of the association with the visual cues compared with the olfactory cue, (4) a tendency for quicker acquisition and higher reliability of the aversion by the marmosets compared with the squirrel monkeys, and (5) that all individuals from both species were able to reliably remember the significance of the visual cues, color and shape, even after 4 months, whereas only the marmosets showed retention of the significance of the olfactory cues for up to 4 weeks. Furthermore, the results suggest that in both species tested, illness is not a necessary prerequisite for food avoidance learning but that the presumably innate rejection responses toward highly concentrated but nontoxic bitter and sour tastants are sufficient to induce robust learning and retention.     

风险偏爱特征的实验研究

本研究采用等级排序的方法 ,60名被试分别在大、小两种恒定的期望值条件下 ,对不同风险来源和不同风险水平的抽彩方案进行偏爱排序 ,以此来检验组合理论有关风险偏爱模式的假设。结果发现 :( 1 )被试的风险偏爱模式以单峰模式为主 ;( 2 )期望值的大小和不同的风险来源对偏爱模式没有显著影响。通过与美国研究者的结果比较发现 ,中美被试对于固定收益、中等风险和高风险评为最不偏爱的数量上存在显著差异。     

Police and Citizen Value Systems: Some Cross-sectional Comparisons

Rokeach, Miller, and Snyder (1971) have reported evidence for a "value gap" between samples of police and citizens in the midwest. The objectives of the present study were: (1) to examine the generality of this finding for another section of the country, the southeast; (2) to extend the analysis from the comparisons of individual values to the comparison of configurations of values between police and citizens; and (3) to compare the police sample from the Rokeach et al. study with the police sample from this study. The Rokeach Value Survey was administered to 104 South Carolina police officers and to 316 citizens sampled in a variety of South Carolina community settings. Group comparisons were made on the rank ordered individual values using the median test. In addition, group median rank orders were compared using the Spearman correlation. The results for the individual values generally supported the findings of Rokeach et al. (1971). For the value configurations, the police-community correlations were uniformly high, indicating general agreement on the relative order of most values. Results of the cross-sectional comparison of police samples revealed a very high degree of correspondance for both individual values and configurations.     

物质成瘾及其戒除:基于反转学习的视角

物质成瘾与反转学习损伤密切相关,成瘾者往往不能灵活地适应变化的刺激—结果的联结,这可能进一步加剧成瘾者的物质使用。近年来研究发现,物质成瘾者的反转学习相关的腹外侧前额和背外侧前额等脑区激活异常,这些异常与成瘾者的冲动性和强迫性有关。此外,个体的反转学习能力对其成瘾行为具有一定预测性。今后应增加对不同类型物质成瘾者的反转学习脑机制及物质相关线索对成瘾者反转学习影响的研究,并且进一步探讨成瘾者的冲动性和强迫性对其反转学习的调节及个体反转学习能力对其成瘾行为的预测。     

Discrimination Learning and Multiple Reversals in Young Adult and Older Monkeys Macaca arctoides

Two groups of five young adult and older stumptailed macaques (Macaca arctoides) were tested on a visual discrimination task followed by a reversal upon attainment of criterion; task and reversal were repeated until 20 reversals with the same pair of objects had been completed. Both groups required more trials to learn the first reversal than the original discrimination, with no significant difference between the groups. Older monkeys tended to show more perseverative errors on early reversals, but a striking improvement in their scores across successive blocks of reversals culminated in performances virtually indistinguishable from those of the young group by the end of testing.     

Discrimination and Reversal Learning by Toddlers Aged 15-23 Months

Few studies have investigated simple discrimination and discrimination reversal learning by children younger than 2 years. Extant research has shown that teaching discrimination reversals may be challenging with this population. We used social reinforcement and correction procedures to teach simple simultaneous discrimination and discrimination reversal tasks involving three pairs of animal pictures displayed in a paper notebook. Participants were eight typically developing toddlers aged 15-23 months. All learned at least one simple discrimination/discrimination reversal problem. Four children learned all problems and showed evidence of learning set formation. Perhaps surprisingly, discrimination reversals were sometimes learned more rapidly than original discriminations. The procedures suggest a potentially efficient methodology for investigating more complex aspects of relational learning in toddlers.

     

Some Normal Extensions of K4.3

This paper proves the finite model property and the finite axiomatizability of a class of normal modal logics extending K4.3. The frames for these logics are those for K4.3, in each of which every point has a bounded number of irreflexive successors if it is after an infinite ascending chain of (not necessarily distinct) points.     

Spiritual Dark Night and Psychological Depression: Some Comparisons and Considerations

The author contends that spiritual dark night and some forms of psychological depression share commonalties yet have distinctly different features that call for different responses from caregivers. The author presents comparisons between the 2 phenomena; highlights differences between them to offer counselors guidelines for making informed responses to their clients' issues; and compares professional preparation for spiritual directors, pastoral counselors, and traditional counselors. The article focuses on effective caregiver responses to dark night challenges that may be misperceived as manifestations of depression and stresses the importance of counselors and spiritual directors knowing their limits of expertise.     

Learning Experiences and Anxiety Sensitivity in Normal Adolescents

The present study examined the relationships between learning experiences with respect to somatic symptoms and levels of anxiety sensitivity in youths. Fifty-two normal adolescents aged 12 to 14 years were interviewed about their learning experiences with anxiety-related and nonanxiety-related somatic symptoms and completed the Childhood Anxiety Sensitivity Index. Results showed that informational learning to some extent contributed to adolescents' anxiety sensitivity levels. That is, parents' transmission of the idea that somatic symptoms might be dangerous was significantly associated with levels of anxiety sensitivity. Other learning experiences such as parental reinforcement or observational learning were not found to be related to anxiety sensitivity. It can be concluded that learning experiences seem to play a small but significant role in the development of high levels of anxiety sensitivity.     

Comparisons of Performance on Academic Probes by Students with Mild Retardation,Learning Disabilities and Behavior Disorders

The assumptions of cross-categorical special education have rarely been subjected to empirical review. Therefore, the purpose of this investigation was to evaluate academic functioning, as measured by spelling and arithmetic performances, of students identified as mildly retarded, learning disabled, and behavior disordered. Significant differences between students with mild retardation and one or both of the latter two groups of students were found in five of the six academic measures that were used. Implications for cross-categorical programming are discussed within the context of overall curricular needs of students with mild handicaps.     

Reversal of Long-Delay Conditioned Taste Aversion Learning in Rats by Sex Hormone Manipulation

Conditioned taste aversion (CTA) learning is an adaptive, robust, well-established learning and memory paradigm. Strong taste aversions develop to the conditioned stimulus (CS = saccharin) despite long delays between exposure to the CS and unconditioned stimulus (US = LiCl). Rats display a sexually dimorphic pattern of long-delay CTA learning (Foy et al., 1996). The present study examines whether this sex difference is a result of activational or organizational hormone action, because here we implanted gonadectomized rats with their normal hormone replacements, or with opposing hormones prior to testing in a 4-hr delayed CTA learning task. We found that gonadally intact male rats displayed a more robust CTA response than intact female rats. Gonadectomy essentially eliminated this sex difference; gonadectomized males and gonadectomized females displayed similar CTA responses. In gonadectomized rats, when their normal sex hormones were replaced with implanted hormone pellets, the sex difference in CTA learning was reinstated. In contrast, when gonadectomized rats were implanted with opposing hormones, the sex difference was reversed. Gonadectomized female rats implanted with 5alpha-DHT pellets (metabolite of testosterone) displayed a stronger CTA response compared to gonadectomized males implanted with 17beta-estradiol pellets. Regardless of the original developmental hormonal environment, our study suggests that an activational manipulation of circulating hormones serves to significantly influence long-delay CTA learning in rats.