Rewarding Good Citizens: The Relationship Between Citizenship Behavior,Gender, and Organizational Rewards1

The relationship between organizational citizenship behavior (OCB) and two organizational rewards—salary and promotion—was examined. Employee gender also was tested as a moderator. Data from 440 individuals employed in multiple settings indicated that individuals who reported engaging more frequently in OCB directed toward the organization (OCBO) also reported receiving more promotions. Further, results indicated that gender was a moderator such that the relationship between OCBO and promotion was stronger for males than for females. The results also revealed an interaction between OCB directed toward individuals (OCBI) and OCBO. Specifically, high OCBI and low OCBO related to lower promotion rates than did low OCBI and low OCBO. Results are discussed in terms of implications for individual career development.     

Ethical Work Climate and Organizational Citizenship Behavior in the Taiwanese Military

This is the first study to examine how types of ethical work climates (EWCs) are related to facets of organizational citizenship behavior (OCB) in military units. Research hypotheses were examined using sample data collected from 508 military officers in Taiwan. The results indicated that the overall EWC and some climate types are significantly positively or negatively associated with overall OCB, OCB-organization (OCBO), OCB-individual (OCBI), and in-role behavior (IRB). Implications of EWC and practical management are discussed, and directions for future research are suggested.     

Workplace justice, citizenship behavior, and turnover intentions in a union context: examining the mediating role of perceived union support and union instrumentality

This study examined the relationship between workplace justice afforded by the grievance system and the union outcomes of citizenship behavior and turnover intentions and the mechanisms that underpin these relationships. Respondents (N = 187) were members of a large public sector union in Singapore. Results revealed that perceived union support and union instrumentality fully mediated the relationship between the dimensions of workplace justice and citizenship behavior directed toward the union (OCBO) and citizenship behavior directed at other union members (OCBI). Union instrumentality partially mediated the procedural justice-turnover intentions relationship.     

Help yourself by helping others: The joint impact of group member organizational citizenship behaviors and group cohesiveness on group member objective task performance change

This paper examines how a group member's individual‐targeted citizenship behavior (OCBI) and organization‐targeted citizenship behavior (OCBO) interact with a salient group‐level contextual variable, group cohesiveness, to foster positive change for that group member, starting with job self‐efficacy change, and followed by objective task performance change. Over a span of 6 months, we engaged in multilevel, multisource, multistage data collection and surveyed 587 members in 83 work groups. Our results indicate that a group member's OCBI, in comparison with OCBO, is more positively related to his or her job self‐efficacy change. Group cohesiveness was found to attenuate the relationship between a group member's OCBI and job self‐efficacy change, and conversely, to accentuate the relationship between a group member's OCBO and job self‐efficacy change. Furthermore, a group member's job self‐efficacy change mediated the interactive effects of the group member's OCBI and group cohesiveness (as well as the group member's OCBO and group cohesiveness) on his or her objective task performance change.     

Exploring organizational citizenship behaviour from an organizational perspective: The relationship between organizational learning and organizational citizenship behaviour

The present study explored the issue of organizational citizenship behaviour (OCB) as a context‐related phenomenon, from a multidimensional perspective. More specifically, it was hypothesized that organizational learning (structures and learning values) would be positively related to (a) OCB that benefited the organization as a whole (OCBO) and (b) OCB that immediately benefited particular individuals (OCBI). The hypotheses identified the school as the unit of analysis; so all variables were aggregates of individual responses to the organizational level of analysis. Justification for aggregation was provided by a within‐group similarity index (r_wg) and a within‐ and between‐entities analysis (WABA). Results from a sample of 31 schools confirmed the main hypotheses, and generally supported the notion that OCB could be treated as a context‐related phenomenon. These results should encourage researchers and practitioners to focus more attention on the organizational context and its characteristics as related to OCB.     

Teacher organizational citizenship behaviours and job efficacy: Implications for student quality of school life

The present study investigated the impact of teachers' organizational citizenship behaviours (OCBs) on student quality of school life (SQSL) via the indirect effect of job efficacy. A measure of teacher OCBs was developed, tapping one dimension of individual‐focused OCB (OCBI – student‐directed behaviour) and two dimensions of organization‐focused OCB (OCBO – civic virtue and professional development). In line with previous research suggesting that OCBs may enhance job efficacy, as well as studies demonstrating the positive effects of teacher efficacy on student outcomes, we expected an indirect relationship between teachers OCBs and SQSL via teachers' job efficacy. Hypotheses were tested in a multi‐level design in which 170 teachers and their students (N=3,057) completed questionnaires. A significant proportion of variance in SQSL was attributable to classroom factors. Analyses revealed that the civic virtue and professional development behaviours of teachers were positively related to their job efficacy. The job efficacy of teachers also had a positive impact on all five indicators of SQSL. In regards to professional development, job efficacy acted as an indirect variable in the prediction of four student outcomes (i.e., general satisfaction, student–teacher relations, achievement, and opportunity) and fully mediated the direct negative effect on psychological distress.     

The dimensionality and antecedents of emotional labor strategies

This investigation had two purposes. The first was to determine whether the display of naturally felt emotions is distinct from surface acting and deep acting as a method of displaying organizationally desired emotions. The second purpose was to examine dispositional and situational antecedents of surface acting, deep acting, and the expression of naturally felt emotions. Results supported a three-dimensional structure separating deep acting, surface acting, and the expression of naturally felt emotions. In addition, the dispositional and situational variables exhibited theoretically consistent and distinct patterns of relationships with the three emotional labor strategies. Overall, the results of this study expand the nomological network of surface acting and deep acting and suggest that the expression of naturally felt emotions is a distinct strategy for displaying emotions at work and should be included in research on emotional labor.     

The primacy of perceiving: emotion recognition buffers negative effects of emotional labor

There is ample empirical evidence for negative effects of emotional labor (surface acting and deep acting) on workers' well-being. This study analyzed to what extent workers' ability to recognize others' emotions may buffer these effects. In a 4-week study with 85 nurses and police officers, emotion recognition moderated the relationship between emotional labor and work engagement: Workers with high emotion recognition engaging in emotional labor did not report lower work engagement after 4 weeks, whereas those with low emotion recognition did. These effects pertained to both surface and deep acting. The results suggest that emotional labor be not necessarily detrimental to workers' engagement. Instead, the impact of emotional labor hinges upon workers' ability to correctly identify interaction partners' emotions.     

LEADERSHIP TRAINING IN ORGANIZATIONAL JUSTICE TO INCREASE CITIZENSHIP BEHAVIOR WITHIN A LABOR UNION: A REPLICATION

In a replication of a quasi-experiment by Skarlicki and Latham (1996), we investigated the effect of training union leaders ( N = 25) in the administration of organizational justice principles on union members' ( N = 177) perceptions of their leaders' fairness and the members' subsequent citizenship behavior toward their union. Despite the fact that the union members were also shareholders of the company, the results were replicated. Union leader training increased members' perceptions of their leaders' fairness as well as union members' citizenship behavior directed both toward the union as an organization (OCBO) and fellow union members (OCBI). Organizational justice was found to partially mediate the effect of the training on OCBO, but not OCBI.     

Forgotten but not gone: An examination of fit between leader consideration and initiating structure needed and received

We examined the effects of fit between leader consideration and initiating structure needed and received on employees' work-related attitudes (i.e., trust in the supervisor, job satisfaction, and affective commitment to the organization). Consistent with predictions that derive from the person-environment fit research tradition, results from Study 1 suggested that deficient amounts of both leadership behaviors were associated with unfavorable attitudinal outcomes. However, while excess levels of consideration were associated with favorable attitudinal outcomes, excess levels of initiating structure were associated with unfavorable attitudes, and for both forms of leadership, higher levels of absolute fit were associated with more favorable outcomes. Results from Study 2 suggested that attitudes generated by the fit between leadership needed and received influence employees' organizational citizenship behavior as reported by their supervisors. The relationship between consideration needed and received and subordinates' organizational citizenship behavior relating to individuals (OCBI) and organizational citizenship behavior relating to the organization itself (OCBO) was partially mediated by employees' trust in the supervisor, while the relationship between initiating structure needed and received and OCBI was fully mediated by trust in the supervisor, and for OCBO was partially mediated. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved).     

Quality of Work Life as a Mediator Between Emotional Labor and Work Family Interference

Purpose  We adopted the conservation of resources model (COR, Hobfoll Am Psychol 44:513–524, 1989; Hobfoll in Stress, culture, and community: the psychology and philosophy of stress, Plenum, New York, 1998) to examine the associations among emotional labor, work family interference, and quality of work life. Design/Methodology/Approach  Cross-sectional, self-reported data were obtained from 442 Hong Kong Chinese service employees. Findings  Correlation and hierarchical regression analyses showed that surface acting was a salient correlate of work-to-family interference, even when organizational display rules and employees’ demographic information were controlled. Furthermore, quality of work life had partially mediated the relationship between surface acting and work-to-family interference. However, deep acting and expression of naturally felt emotion did not relate to work-to-family interference. Finally, we found that family-to-work interference was a salient correlate of the use of surface acting in workplace. Implication  This study provided useful information of how adopting different emotional labor strategies related to work family interference. Based on our results, the use of deep acting should be promoted in workplace because it related positively to quality of work life and it did not amplify the work-to-family interference. Originality/value  While past studies often explored the role of emotional labor as the precursor of work family interference, our study is among the first attempt to examine family-to-work interference as the antecedent of emotional labor. Additionally, we had also confirmed the role of quality of work life as an important mediator between emotional labor-work-to-family interference.     

Why do Managers Engage in Trustworthy Behavior? A Multilevel Cross‐Cultural Study in 18 Countries

Drawing on theories of generalized exchange and the norm of indirect reciprocity, we conceptualize subordinates’ organizational citizenship behavior directed toward the organization (OCBO) and directed toward peers (OCBI) as antecedents of managerial trustworthy behavior and examine how managers’ affective trust in subordinates mediates this relationship. We also investigate the extent to which this mediation is moderated by the level of collectivism in a society. Data were collected from 741 managers and 2,111 subordinates in 18 countries representing all major cultural regions of the world. We find support for our hypothesized moderated mediation in that managers’ affective trust in subordinates mediates the relationships between both subordinates’ OCBO and managerial trustworthy behavior, and subordinates’ OCBI and managerial trustworthy behavior across the different countries studied. Further, managers’ affective trust in subordinates only mediates the relationships between both types of citizenship behavior and managerial trustworthy behavior when collectivism is low to medium but not when it is high. Implications for research on cross‐cultural psychology, trust, and organizational citizenship behavior are discussed.     

Emotions naturally and laboriously expressed: Antecedents,consequences, and the role of valence

The emotion regulation literature has focused primarily on comparing the methods of surface acting and deep acting, yet scholars have also noted the importance of naturally felt emotions as a means for achieving a desired emotional display. The literature has also mainly examined positive displays, yet there are many situations that call for the display of negative emotions. To advance theory and research, we draw from theory on central principles of approach/avoidance motivation to understand why an individual would choose a given emotional display method, as well as the extent to which a given method is beneficial versus harmful to individuals. In doing so, we identify the valence of the emotion being displayed as a critical factor influencing the benefits and detriments of emotional display methods. Results of a 3-week experience-sampling study of 218 employees revealed that mood was associated with the natural display of positive emotion, promotion focus was associated with deep acting, and prevention focus was associated with surface acting. In positive display contexts, displaying emotion naturally was most beneficial (in terms of effects on emotional exhaustion, job satisfaction, and work withdrawal), whereas surface acting was most detrimental. In negative contexts, this relationship pattern was reversed.     

Career adaptability as a mediator between personality and career engagement

The current study examined the role of career adaptability as a mediator between personality dimensions and career engagement. This investigation was conducted using a sample of university students (N = 201) who completed the Zuckerman–Kuhlman–Aluja Personality Questionnaire, the Career Adapt-Abilities Scale-Persian Form, and the Career Engagement Scale. Career adaptability dimensions related positively with activity, negatively with neuroticism, and positively with career engagement. The results indicated that career adaptability dimensions partially mediated the relationships between activity (work compulsion, general activity, restlessness, and work energy) and career engagement, whereas they were a full mediator between neuroticism (anxiety, depression, dependency, and low self-esteem) and career engagement. Among career adaptability dimensions, curiosity fully mediated the effect of sensation seeking on career engagement. These findings suggest that career adaptability is a dynamic mechanism that helps to regulate the relationship between specific dispositional traits and career adapting behaviors.     

Self‐Engagement Moderates the Mediated Relationship Between Organizational Constraints and Organizational Citizenship Behaviors Via Rated Leadership

We examined self‐engagement in job performance in a moderated mediation model where engagement moderated the relationship between organizational constraints and ratings of leadership effectiveness, and ratings of leadership effectiveness mediated the relationship between organizational constraints and organizational citizenship behaviors (OCBs). University employees representing diverse occupations completed measures of self‐engagement, organizational constraints, and leader effectiveness. Supervisors provided ratings of OCB. Tests of mediated moderation using random coefficient modeling revealed that leadership mediated the relationship between constraints and OCB for highly engaged employees. Results are discussed in terms of highly engaged workers being attuned to stressors in the work environment that may compromise performance, potentially blaming leaders for the presence of these obstacles, thus causing withdrawal of effort on nonessential performance tasks.     

The mediating role of engagement and burnout in the relationship between employees' emotion regulation strategies and customer outcomes

Service employees' emotional display plays an important role in service interactions, but little is known about the effects of employee's emotional regulation strategies on customer outcomes. This study examines a model in which emotion regulation is associated with customer satisfaction and loyalty intentions as mediated by employee burnout and engagement. Data collected from 135 employee–customer dyads following service interactions was analysed with structural equation modelling. The results show that engagement fully mediates the relationship of deep acting, and burnout partially mediates the relationship of surface acting, with customer satisfaction and loyalty intentions.     

Emotional Intelligence as a Moderator of Affectivity/Emotional Labor and Emotional Labor/Psychological Distress Relationships

Emotional labor refers to effort, planning, and control required to display organizationally desired emotions during interpersonal transactions and performed by individuals either through deep acting or surface acting. Deep acting refers to the modification of inner feeling in order to express the organizationally desired emotions, whereas surface acting refers to the change of emotional expression without facilitating the change of inner emotional state. The authors examined the moderating role of emotional intelligence dimensions (self-emotional appraisal; others’ emotional appraisal, use of emotion, and regulation of emotion) in the affectivity (a general positive or negative tendency to experience a particular mood)-emotional labor and emotional labor-psychological distress relationships among 210 university teachers. Specifically, we found that (a) regulation of emotion was a particularly important emotional intelligence dimension in influencing the use of deep acting, both directly and indirectly through the interaction with negative affectivity; (b) positive affectivity emerged as an important affectivity dimension in influencing the use of deep acting both directly and indirectly through the interaction with self-emotional appraisal; (c) negative affectivity was a particularly important affectivity dimension in influencing the use of surface acting, both directly and indirectly through its interaction with emotional intelligence dimensions of self-emotional appraisal and use of emotion; and finally (d) regulation of emotion interacted with deep acting to influence the psychological distress arising from EL requirements.     

中小学教师情绪工作策略及特性与工作满意度的关系研究

以情绪工作的资源守恒为理论基础, 通过问卷调查, 探讨了368名中小学教师情绪工作策略及其特性与工作满意度的关系。结果发现:①表面行为策略与工作满意度负相关显著, 主动深度行为策略和被动深度行为策略与工作满意度正相关显著。②情绪表达多样性和持久性与工作满意度负相关显著, 并与表面行为策略成正相关显著, 与被动深度行为策略负相关显著;③表面行为策略在情绪表达多样性对工作满意度的影响起部分中介作用, 被动深度行为策略在情绪表达多样性对工作满意度的影响中起完全中介作用。     

中学生良心与学业成就的关系:学习投入的中介作用

采用青少年良心问卷、学业成就量表和学习投入量表,对 1028名中学生进行调查,探讨学习投入在中学生良心与学业成就之间的中介作用。结果发现:(1)良心及各维度与中学生学业成就、学习投入均呈显著正相关;(2)学习投入在良心及其责任心、孝敬心、宽恕心、诚信心、是非心维度与学业成就之间起完全中介作用,表明中学生良心及其上述维度可通过学习投入间接影响其学业成就。     

Teachers’ emotions and emotion management: integrating emotion regulation theory with emotional labor research

While the similarities between emotion regulation (Gross in J Personal Soc Psychol 74:224–237, 1998a) and emotional labor (Hochschild in The managed heart: commercialization of human feeling. University of California Press, Berkeley, 1983) have been theoretically discussed, empirical research on their relation is lacking. We examined the relations between the two constructs as well as their relations with teachers’ discrete emotions in a sample of 189 secondary school teachers. The results showed that reappraisal correlated positively with deep acting, whereas suppression correlated positively with surface acting. The findings further suggest that reappraisal and deep acting are linked to experiencing positive emotions, whereas suppression and surface acting are linked to experiencing negative emotions. However, there also were some differences in how emotion regulation and emotional labor were related to teachers’ discrete emotional experiences. Specifically, reappraisal and deep acting strategies were positively related to enjoyment; in addition, deep acting was negatively related to negative emotions such as anxiety, anger, and frustration. By contrast, suppression and surface acting strategies were positively associated with negative emotions (i.e., suppression with anxiety; surface acting with anxiety, anger, and frustration), and surface acting was negatively associated with the positive emotion enjoyment. Implications for integrating research on teachers’ emotion regulation and emotional labor are discussed.