The Social Phobia and Social Interaction Anxiety Scales: Evaluation of Psychometric Properties

The present investigations examined the factor structure and psychometric properties of two new self-report measures of social phobia, the Social Interaction Anxiety Scale (SIAS) and the Social Phobia Scale (SPS). A confirmatory factor analysis in Study I provided support for the fit of a two-factor model of the SIAS and SPS. Internal consistency estimates were high for the original two scales with a sample of 200 undergraduates. Also, using an item parceling procedure, the obtained internal consistency reliability indices for each parcel were acceptable. Results of the CFA in Study II provided support for the factorial stability of the model identified in Study I. Furthermore, multisample analyses showed invariant patterns for factor loadings and factor correlations across 138 men and 272 women. Gender differences were not observed in the mean SIAS and SPS scale and item scores. Both scales correlated negatively and significantly with measures of social desirability. Concurrent validity was established for the scales. The SPS was less specific than the SIAS to symptoms of social phobia.     

Latent variables should remain as such: Evidence from a Monte Carlo study

Use of subject scores as manifest variables to assess the relationship between latent variables produces attenuated estimates. This has been demonstrated for raw scores from classical test theory (CTT) and factor scores derived from factor analysis. Conclusions on scores have not been sufficiently extended to item response theory (IRT) theta estimates, which are still recommended for estimation of relationships between latent variables. This is because IRT estimates appear to have preferable properties compared to CTT, while structural equation modeling (SEM) is often advised as an alternative to scores for estimation of the relationship between latent variables. The present research evaluates the consequences of using subject scores as manifest variables in regression models to test the relationship between latent variables. Raw scores and three methods for obtaining theta estimates were used and compared to latent variable SEM modeling. A Monte Carlo study was designed by manipulating sample size, number of items, type of test, and magnitude of the correlation between latent variables. Results show that, despite the advantage of IRT models in other areas, estimates of the relationship between latent variables are always more accurate when SEM models are used. Recommendations are offered for applied researchers.     

Regression among factor scores

Structural equation models with latent variables are sometimes estimated using an intuitive three-step approach, here denoted factor score regression. Consider a structural equation model composed of an explanatory latent variable and a response latent variable related by a structural parameter of scientific interest. In this simple example estimation of the structural parameter proceeds as follows: First, common factor models areseparately estimated for each latent variable. Second, factor scores areseparately assigned to each latent variable, based on the estimates. Third, ordinary linear regression analysis is performed among the factor scores producing an estimate for the structural parameter. We investigate the asymptotic and finite sample performance of different factor score regression methods for structural equation models with latent variables. It is demonstrated that the conventional approach to factor score regression performs very badly. Revised factor score regression, using Regression factor scores for the explanatory latent variables and Bartlett scores for the response latent variables, produces consistent estimators for all parameters.     

Factor analysis of MCMI-II and PACL basic personality scales in a college sample

This study examined factor dimensions common to the eight basic personality scales of the Millon Clinical Multiaxial Inventory-II (MCMI-II; Millon, 1987) and Personality Adjective Check List (PACL; Strack, 1987, 1990). Subjects were 140 college students (65 men and 75 women). MCMI-II weighted raw scores (WRS) and WRS corrected for number of items endorsed true by regression were employed for analysis along with PACL T-scores. Principal components analyses with varimax and direct oblimin rotations were carried out separately on the two sets of MCMI-II and PACL scores. MCMI-II and PACL scales measuring the same personalities were usually correlated most highly with each other, although some divergences were noted. WRS yielded three bipolar dimensions and a fourth unipolar method factor that loaded only the five MCMI-II scales that were strongly correlated with number of items endorsed true. Residual scores yielded a more meaningful set of three bipolar dimensions labeled Social Introversion-Extraversion, Emotionality-Restraint, and Social Dominance-Submissiveness, without the method factor, that were very similar to personality dimensions found separately in the two tests. More research is needed to clarify the response bias issue in the MCMI-II and to further explicate similarities and differences between the MCMI-II and the PACL.     

Factor Analysis of MCMI-II and PACL Basic Personality Scales in a College Sample

This study examined factor dimensions common to the eight basic personality scales of the Millon Clinical Multiaxiat Inventory-II (MCMI-II; Millon, 1987) and Personality Adjective Check List (PACL; Strack, 1987, 1990). Subjects were 140 college students (65 men and 75 women). MCMI-II weighted raw scores (WRS) and WRS corrected for number of items endorsed true by regression were employed for analysis along with PACL T-scores. Principal components analyses with varimax and direct oblimin rotations were carried out separately on the two sets of MCMI-II and PACL scores. MCMI-II and PACL scales measuring the same personalities were usually correlated most highly with each other, although some divergences were noted. WRS yielded three bipolar dimensions and a fourth unipolar method factor that loaded only the five MCMI-II scales that were strongly correlated with number of items endorsed true. Residual scores yielded a more meaningful set of three bipolar dimensions labeled Social IntroversionExtraversion, Emotionality-Restraint, and Social Dominance-Submissiveness, without the method factor, that were very similar to personality dimensions found separately in the two tests. More research is needed to clarify the response bias issue in the MCMI-II and to further explicate similarities and differences between the MCMI-II and the PACL.     

Scale of Unpredictability Beliefs: Reliability and Validity

Experiencing unpredictability in the environment has a variety of negative outcomes. However, these are difficult to ascertain due to the lack of a psychometrically sound measure of unpredictability beliefs. This article summarizes the development of the Scale of Unpredictability Beliefs (SUB), which assesses perceptions about unpredictability in one's life, in other people, and in the world. In Study I, college students (N = 305) responded to 68 potential items as well as other scales. Exploratory factor analysis yielded three internally consistent subscales (Self, People, and World; 16 items total). Higher SUB scores correlated with more childhood family unpredictability, greater likelihood of parental alcohol abuse, stronger causal uncertainty, and lower self-efficacy. In Study II, a confirmatory factor analysis supported the three-factor solution (N = 186 college students). SUB scores correlated with personality, childhood family unpredictability, and control beliefs. In most instances the SUB predicted family unpredictability and control beliefs beyond existing unpredictability measures. Study III confirmed the factor structure and replicated family unpredictability associations in an adult sample (N = 483). This article provides preliminary support for this new multi-dimensional, self-report assessment of unpredictability beliefs, and ideas for future research are discussed.     

Methodological and theoretical improvements in the study of superstitious beliefs and behaviour

Via four studies (N = 901), we developed an improved Belief in Superstition Scale (BSS) composed of three distinct components (belief in bad luck, belief in good luck, and the belief that luck can be changed), whose structure was supported through exploratory (Study 1) and confirmatory (Studies 2 and 3) factor analyses using divergent samples. We found that among theoretical predictors, higher ‘chance’ locus of control (i.e., the belief that chance/fate controls one's life) best predicted all three BSS subscales (Studies 2–3). In Study 3, we found that BSS subscale scores were reliable, but largely invariant across age and education with a non‐general psychology sample. In Study 4, the BSS subscales best predicted participants’ superstitious attitudes and behaviour in a new lottery drawing paradigm among other commonly used superstition scales. Taken together, our results indicate that the BSS is a valuable addition to the burgeoning research on superstitious attitudes and behaviour.     

Personality traits,learning stratigies,and performance

The objective of this research is to analyse the relationships between personality traits, learning strategies, and performance. Two multivariate studies (N=139 and N=92) were conducted. In both studies factor analyses of the learning strategies yielded two factors. One factor, labelled, ‘learning discipline’, correlated highly with the Conscientiousness scale and the other factor, labelled, ‘elaboration’, correlated with the Openness of Experience scale. In Study 1, about 17 per cent of the variance in college grades was accounted for by personality scales and learning strategies. In Study 2, learning strategies accounted for about 31 per cent of the variance in college grades. Path analyses showed that the relations between basic personality traits and grades were mediated by the learning strategies.     

An abbreviated form of the social and emotional loneliness scale for adults (SELSA)

In two independent studies of university undergraduates, the present investigation created and evaluated an abbreviated (15-item) version of the 37-item Social and Emotional Loneliness Scale for Adults (SELSA), a multidimensional instrument that assesses family, romantic, and social loneliness. In Study 1 (N=340), participants completed the SELSA; in Study 2 (N=211), participants completed the SELSA and five other loneliness inventories. Results showed that the three abbreviated SELSA subscales each (a) demonstrated very high internal consistency, (b) correlated very highly to the full respective subscales, and (c) correlated with theoretically related loneliness scales. In addition, both exploratory and confirmatory factor analysis supported the hypothesized 3-subscale factor solution. In sum, results showed that the abbreviated SELSA subscales represent a psychometrically reliable and valid alternative to the full inventory.     

Validation of the Adolescent Concerns Measure (ACM): evidence from exploratory and confirmatory factor analysis

This article reports the development and initial validation of scores obtained from the Adolescent Concerns Measure (ACM), a scale which assesses concerns of Asian adolescent students. In Study 1, findings from exploratory factor analysis using 619 adolescents suggested a 24-item scale with four correlated factors--Family Concerns (9 items), Peer Concerns (5 items), Personal Concerns (6 items), and School Concerns (4 items). Initial estimates of convergent validity for ACM scores were also reported. The four-factor structure of ACM scores derived from Study 1 was confirmed via confirmatory factor analysis in Study 2 using a two-fold cross-validation procedure with a separate sample of 811 adolescents. Support was found for both the multidimensional and hierarchical models of adolescent concerns using the ACM. Internal consistency and test-retest reliability estimates were adequate for research purposes. ACM scores show promise as a reliable and potentially valid measure of Asian adolescents' concerns.     

Measuring gratitude in youth: assessing the psychometric properties of adult gratitude scales in children and adolescents

Before the developmental trajectory, outcomes, and related interventions of gratitude can be accurately and confidently studied among the youth, researchers must ensure that they have psychometrically sound measures of gratitude that are suitable for this population. Thus, considering that no known scales were specifically designed to measure gratitude in youth, this study aimed to answer an important question: Are the existing gratitude scales used with adults valid for use with youth? The present study is an empirical investigation, based on a large youth sample (N = 1,405) with ages ranging from 10 to 19 years old, of the psychometric properties of scores of the Gratitude Questionnaire-6 (GQ-6; M. E. McCullough, R. A. Emmons, & J.-A. Tsang, 2002), the Gratitude Adjective Checklist (GAC; M. E. McCullough, R. A. Emmons, & J.-A. Tsang, 2002), and the Gratitude Resentment and Appreciation Test (GRAT)-short form (M. Thomas & P. Watkins, 2003). Single-group and multiple-group confirmatory factor analyses indicated that the factor structures of these gratitude scales resemble those found with adults and were invariant across age groups. Scores of all three gratitude scales revealed acceptable internal consistency estimates (i.e., >.70) across age groups. Results showed that whereas scores of all three gratitude scales were positively correlated with each other for 14- to 19-year-olds, GRAT-short form scores tended to display relatively low correlations with scores of the other two measures for younger children (10-13 years old). Furthermore, the nomological network analysis showed that scores of all three gratitude scales were positively correlated with positive affect and life satisfaction scores across the age groups. The relationships with negative affect and depression scores, however, seemed dependent on the child's age. Pending results from subsequent research recommendations for researchers interested in studying gratitude in youth are offered.     

A comparison between three and five factor models of Pakistani personality data

The Eysenck Personality Questionnaire-Revised (EPQ-R), the Eysenck Personality Profiler Short Version (EPP-S), and the Big Five Inventory (BFI-V4a) were administered to 135 postgraduate students of business in Pakistan. Whilst Extraversion and Neuroticism scales from the three questionnaires were highly correlated, it was found that Agreeableness was most highly correlated with Psychoticism in the EPQ-R and Conscientiousness was most highly correlated with Psychoticism in the EPP-S. Principal component analyses with varimax rotation were carried out. The analyses generally suggested that the five factor model rather than the three-factor model was more robust and better for interpretation of all the higher order scales of the EPQ-R, EPP-S, and BFI-V4a in the Pakistani data. Results show that the superiority of the five factor solution results from the inclusion of a broader variety of personality scales in the input data, whereas Eysenck's three factor solution seems to be best when a less complete but possibly more important set of variables are input.     

CONSTRUCT VALIDATION OF THE COMREY PERSONALITY SCALES

To investigate the construct validity of the Comrey Personality Scales, this personality test and a biographical data inventory inquiring about past and present life circumstances were administered to 209 volunteer U.C.L.A. students. Biographical data variables were correlated with scores on the eight personality scales. Personality scale score estimates by the authors, based on examination of the respondents' biographical data responses, were also correlated with actual scale scores. The personality scales which received the best confirmation were Social Conformity vs Rebelliousness and Orderliness vs. Lack of Compulsion. Support for the construct validity of the other personality scales varied from moderate to negligible.     

Empirical derivation of SVIB-Holland scales: A brief report

The Strong Vocational Interest Blank responses of 93 students were used to construct six empirical scales similar to the scales of Holland's Vocational Preference Inventory. Scores on the empirical scales were correlated with actual VPI scores. The resulting correlations were compared to coefficients obtained from correlating the intuitive scales designed by Campbell with actual VPI scores. It was concluded that (1) meaningful estimates of VPI profiles can be obtained by scoring selected items from the SVIB and (2) further work with the empirical scales is needed prior to settling on a SVIB scoring procedure for estimating VPI profiles.     

A Monte Carlo study comparing PIV,ULS and DWLS in the estimation of dichotomous confirmatory factor analysis

We conducted a Monte Carlo study to investigate the performance of the polychoric instrumental variable estimator (PIV) in comparison to unweighted least squares (ULS) and diagonally weighted least squares (DWLS) in the estimation of a confirmatory factor analysis model with dichotomous indicators. The simulation involved 144 conditions (1,000 replications per condition) that were defined by a combination of (a) two types of latent factor models, (b) four sample sizes (100, 250, 500, 1,000), (c) three factor loadings (low, moderate, strong), (d) three levels of non‐normality (normal, moderately, and extremely non‐normal), and (e) whether the factor model was correctly specified or misspecified. The results showed that when the model was correctly specified, PIV produced estimates that were as accurate as ULS and DWLS. Furthermore, the simulation showed that PIV was more robust to structural misspecifications than ULS and DWLS.     

Validity of the SDS-17 measure of social desirability in the American context

In Germany, Stober et al. (1999, 2001) presented evidence for the validity of the SDS-17, a new measure of social desirability bias. In the current investigation, three experiments (n = 800) assessed the SDS-17’s validity in the US environment. In all conditions SDS-17 scores correlated highly with Marlowe–Crowne scores. In Study 1, a group administration of a paper and pencil booklet, SDS-17 scores of 327 college students were higher under Fake Good than Standard conditions, and both were higher than scores in the Honest condition. Study 2, an online survey of a demographically diverse adult sample (n = 257), showed that the increase in SDS-17 scores under Fake Good conditions occurs also in a Web survey and that SDS-17 scores were unrelated to one’s demographic profile. Study 3, a group administration to 216 college students, revealed again that scores under Fake Good were higher than those under Standard administration and that SDS-17 scores correlated more highly with the Impression Management than with the Self-Deception subscales of the BIDR. The SDS-17 appeared valid for the US environment as a measure of socially desirable responding. The evidence, however, encourages its further assessment as an index of social desirability bias per se.     

The cognitive-somatic anxiety questionnaire: Psychometric and validity data

The Cognitive-Somatic Anxiety Questionnaire (CSAQ) is a 14-item self-report inventory that is divided into two 7-item scales (Cognitive and Somatic) that appear to reflect cognitive or somatic anxiety. In an attempt to evaluate the construct validity of this multidimensional instrument, the CSAQ was administered to 109 college students along with several other measures of physical and psychological symptoms. The results suggest that (a) despite considerable overlap between the Cognitive and the Somatic scales (r=.62), an exploratory factor analysis is able to identify a single large somatic factor along with three lesser cognitive-appearing factors, and (b) the correlations with concurrent measures of related constructs provide some limited evidence of the construct validity of the CSAQ. For males, both the Cognitive and the Somatic scales of the CSAQ correlated significantly with several anxietyrelated measures. However, for females CSAQ scores correlated less consistently with the other test scales, although Somatic scale scores for females were positively related to measures of health and exercise involvement. Suggestions for improving the CSAQ are offered.     

The Anxiety Depression Distress Inventory–27 (ADDI–27): New Evidence of Factor Structure,Item-Level Measurement Invariance,and Validity

Three studies examining the factor structure and psychometric properties of the Anxiety Depression Distress Inventory–27 (ADDI–27) extended the initial instrument development studies for this recently introduced inventory. The ADDI–27 is an empirically derived short form of the Mood and Anxiety Questionaire–90 (MASQ–90) comprising three scales: Positive Affect, Somatic Anxiety, and General Distress. The main objectives of Study 1 (N = 700) were to examine the factor structure of the ADDI–27 and its measurement invariance across gender at the item level. The objective of Study 2 (N = 538) was to examine evidence for the convergent and discriminant validity of scores on the ADDI–27. The objective of Study 3 (N = 240) was to assess further evidence for the nomological network and convergent and discriminant validity of the ADDI–27 scores. Results of exploratory structural equation modeling yielded strong support for a 3-factor model, with approximate fit indexes meeting or exceeding the conventional cutoffs. With p ≤ .001 as the criterion for detecting noninvariance, results of measurement invariance analysis suggested that all of the ADDI–27 items were invariant across gender. Results of multivariate validity analyses across 2 studies provided support for the convergent and discriminant validity of scores on the ADDI–27 scales.     

MCMI-II Scoring: Weighted and Unweighted Algorithms

This brief report examines the relationship between the scale scores derived through weighted and unweighted item scoring on the Millon Clinical Multiaxial Inventory-II (MCMI-II). The inventories of 356 subjects across three Samples were scored using weighted and unweighted algorithms. Correlations between the weighted and unweighted MCMI-II scales were found to approach unity. This casts doubt on whether the weighting system has substantial effect on the profiles that are generated or on reducing interscale correlations.