Gender Differences in Coping Styles of Chinese Military Officers Undergoing Intensive Training

This study investigated gender differences in anxiety and coping styles under the stress of intense military training. We surveyed Chinese female (n = 470) and male (n = 379) military officers who were surveyed during the third month of a 10-month intensive training program. Results indicated that state and trait anxiety were highly correlated in both women and men. In general, female officers had higher levels of anxiety, greater negative coping tendencies, and less perceived self-efficacy than their male counterparts. When compared with the norm, both women and men had significantly more positive coping strategies. A hierarchical multiple regression analysis showed factors that influenced male and female state anxiety. Avoidance, which was chosen by women more often than men, in general was less useful for female officers. The most common positive coping style for female officers was problem solving, whereas for men it was help seeking. We suggested that even female officers with lower mental health levels than their male counterparts made active cognitive changes to their coping styles when undergoing intense military training.     

Decision‐making styles and physiological correlates of negative stress: Is there a relation?

There are 5 independent, although not mutually exclusive, styles used by military officers when making decisions: rational, intuitive, dependent, avoidant, and spontaneous (Scott & Bruce, 1995). The rational and intuitive styles are part of the cognitive style concept, whereas the conceptual foundation of the remaining 3 styles is less clear. The dependent and the avoidant styles were expected to be accompanied by increased levels of negative stress, while this was not expected of the remaining 3 styles. This hypothesis was put to test. Twenty-three male Swedish Army majors were asked to make decisions in 2 different military situations. Their decision styles were measured by the General Decision Making Style inventory (GDMS; Scott & Bruce, 1995). Saliva cortisol release indicated negative stress and was measured on 4 occasions: twice before, after the first decision, and after the second decision. The avoidant style was related to negative stress, as predicted. There was, however, no difference between the base-line measurements and the after-decision measurements, suggesting that officers with an avoidant decision style may, in general, have higher levels of cortisol secretion (i.e., being more of the worrying kind).     

Assessing Individual Differences in Experiential (Intuitive) and Rational (Analytical) Cognitive Styles

Even though it is argued that intuition has ‘come of age’ in the behavioral sciences, there are still unresolved issues regarding self‐report assessment of intuitive and analytical styles of information processing (cognitive styles). The unitary view proposes that intuition and analysis are opposite ends of a single continuum. The dual view proposes that intuition and analysis are independent (orthogonal) constructs. Moreover, within the dual view, it has been proposed that intuition and analysis can be further subdivided into ability and engagement subcomponents. The aim of this article was to test both of these claims and thereby move discussions regarding the assessment of cognitive styles further forward. This research is important given that much intuition research in organizations is predicated on self‐report methods of assessment. Using data from a sample of police officers and police staff from a large police organization in the United Kingdom, we found that the adoption of a dual (rather than unitary) perspective when assessing experiential and rational cognitive styles is warranted, whereas adopting an ability and engagement refinement is not (hence a simpler formulation is to be preferred). We also observed a number of main effects and interactions with respect to job type, job level, gender, and experience. We offer guidelines for the self‐report assessment of intuition and analysis cognitive styles and discuss a typology of styles. The article concludes by outlining a number of practical implications for cognitive styles assessment in organizational settings.     

ACHIEVEMENT STYLES OF WOMEN LEADERS AND THEIR PEERS: Toward an Understanding of Women and Leadership

Women's achievement was examined by studying the achievement styles and leadership outcomes of women college leaders as compared with those of a control sample of undergraduate men and women (Study 1) and with those of men college leaders (Study 2). Women leaders scored significantly higher than control women on six of nine achievement styles, scored higher than control men on three of nine, and derived satisfaction from a greater number of achievement sources than did women or men controls. Women leaders perceived more support from their institutions and attached more importance to contributing to their community and becoming an authority in their field than did men or women controls. Achievement style was related to leadership role, with endorsement of six styles correlated with attaining leadership. Achievement profiles of women leaders were replicated in Study 2. Men and women college leaders showed similar profiles on eight of nine achievement styles. However, women leaders were significantly less likely to derive satisfaction from competitive achievement than were men leaders.     

Towards understanding the effects of interviewer training in evaluating the cognitive interview

The effectiveness of the cognitive interview (CI) technique has been demonstrated in experimental studies of eyewitness memory conducted in the USA, Germany, and the UK. Much of the research, however, has used college students as interviewers rather than professionals who regularly interview witnesses (e.g. police officers). The aim of this research was to examine the effects of such CI training using experienced police officers with established interviewing styles. An armed robbery was staged and information was elicited in witness interviews. The CI did not significantly increase correct recall but tended to produce more suppositions and errors. A qualitative analysis of interviewer behaviour showed that many officers had difficulty in applying the new cognitive techniques and in avoiding the use of closed and leading questions. The paper addresses two issues: first, that of training experienced police officers who have received relatively little prior training in investigative interviewing, and second, the extent to which we can generalize from the laboratory data elicited in previous studies of CI.     

The concept of love in a Spanish representative sample

The model of romantic love and the acceptance of related myths have been granted wide relevance in our context. It has also been suggested that the concept of love can play a role in the origin and maintenance of gender violence. As an initial step towards researching this relationship, the objective of this article is to study the prevailing concept of love in the Spanish population, as well as to analyze any differences that gender and age may introduce in this conception. A reduced version of the Love Attitudes Scale was administered to a representative sample of 1,351 people. Results show that both men and women widely accept the love styles Eros, Agape, Storge and Pragma, reject the Ludus style, and are indifferent to the Mania style. However, the order of preference for love styles is different for men and women and for different age groups. These results are analyzed and discussed.     

THE JEWISH POLICEMEN OF EIGHTEENTH-CENTURY LONDON

There were tens of thousands of Jewish Londoners in the eighteenth century. Contemporary magistrates Henry Fielding and Patrick Colquhoun blamed these Jews for increases in crime. They made no mention of the many Jewish peace officers who patrolled the city. Fielding and Colquhoun situated Jews as part of the crime problem and not the policing solution. Historians have likewise discussed Jewish criminality and ignored the role of Jews in combating crime in the eighteenth century. However, there was an entire group of Jewish men who both enforced the law and used the law to their own advantage: peace officers and thief-takers. In fact, throughout the eighteenth century Jewish men and women were involved in the policing of the city in official, quasi-official, and unofficial capacities. There were practical reasons for having Jewish constables. There was a select number of occupations that brought Jewish men and women into association with their gentile neighbours. Jewish peddlers, porters, and dealers naturally came in contact with a variety of people. Importantly, there was another vocation that similarly allowed Jewish men to participate in the wider London world: policing. Jewish and gentile peace officers co-operated and worked together in companionship not seen in other trades. This paper examines the activities of Jewish peace officers and thief-takers, to shed light on both the dynamics of eighteenth-century policing and on the nature of the Jewish community.     

Women in Federal Law Enforcement: The Role of Gender Role Orientations and Sexual Orientation in Mentoring

Women have always been under-represented in United States’ law enforcement relative to the population, but women are successful law enforcement officers who bring important skills to the field. Thus, understanding work experiences and the barriers female law enforcement officers face is critical in retaining and promoting women in the field. However, law enforcement is also a masculine, male-dominated occupation causing even greater occupational stress to women through discrimination, exclusion, and harassment (Kakar 2002). The goal of this study was to analyze the relationships among gender role orientations (masculinity and femininity), sexual orientation, and mentoring for female sworn federal law enforcement officers throughout the United States. It was hypothesized that (1) masculine female officers would receive more mentoring, (2) low femininity would enhance masculinity’s effect, (3) sexual minorities would receive less mentoring, negating the beneficial effects of masculinity when the interaction is taken into account, and last, (4) the 3-way interaction between masculinity, femininity, and sexual orientation would uniquely impact mentoring. In the current sample, masculinity was found to positively relate to career mentoring and role modeling whereas sexual orientation was negatively related to career mentoring. The three-way interaction between masculinity, femininity, and sexual orientation also significantly related to career mentoring and role modeling; implications and future directions are discussed.     

But can she command a ship? Acceptance of women by peers at the coast guard academy

The integration of women into the military, mandated by legislation in 1976, was problematic at first; several studies suggested that women were not welcomed by their colleagues. Peer acceptance is an important issue for the Coast Guard, since female officers are not officially discriminated against in duty assignments. Results of this current study, which assessed whether or not male Coast Guard cadets' attitudes have changed over time, suggest that males have become more tolerant of the idea of women in the military, and especially, that male cadets' perception of their female peers becomes more positive over time. The results are discussed in terms of Festinger's cognitive dissonance theory.This article is a revision of a paper presented at the 92nd annual meeting of the American Psychological Association, Toronto, Canada, August 1985.     

Competing schools or stylistic variation in careers guidance interviewing

We know very little about how careers officers conduct careers guidance interviews. Research was carried out to discover how careers officers view interviewing, the factors that lead them to vary their interview style, and how they modify their approach with experience. There was little evidence that officers vary their style by using radically opposed models in different circumstances. Instead, variations in approach are best regarded as different combinations of ideas and techniques. Careers officers adapted their interview styles largely in response to the perceived needs of clients. Initial training course attended appeared to have a limited but enduring effect on interview style, but there was also evidence that with experience careers officers develop more confidence, coherence and flexibility. Careers officers judged their interviews to be most effective when they were able to establish a rapport with the client, to spend time drawing up a contract, to challenge clients in a sensitive way, and to structure the interview appropriately.     

The Relationship Between Gender Role Stereotypes and Requisite Military Leadership Characteristics

The continuing emphasis on the need to utilize fully women's leadership skills in traditionally or predominantly male environments highlights the need for understanding gender stereotypes and leadership characteristics perceived to be associated with various jobs. This study essentially replicates Schein's research (1973, 1975) to determine the extent of gender stereotypes held by military students for military leadership positions. The results indicate (1) continued disparity in men's perceptions of the similarities between women and leaders, (2) support of previous findings that women recognize similarities between women and leaders, (3) senior military students possess stronger masculine gender role stereotypes of successful officers than do students with less than 1 year of service in the military academy, (4) greater experience with being led by female leaders did not affect men's masculine gender role stereotypes of successful leaders, and (5) successful female cadet leaders perceive successful officers as having characteristics commonly ascribed to both women and men. These results are interpreted in light of previous research on gender roles and leadership, and the practical implications for meeting organizational, and individual objectives for successful utilization of women in military leadership positions are discussed.     

Military leaders and followers – do they have different decision styles?

There are five different, although not mutually exclusive, styles exhibited by military officers when making decisions: rational, intuitive, dependent, avoidant, and spontaneous ( Scott & Bruce, 1995 ). The purpose was to investigate if elected leaders of military planning teams had a different configuration of decision-making styles than their team members. Participants were 98 army captains organized in 16 brigade-level planning teams. The results indicate that team leaders tended to be more spontaneous and less rational, dependent and avoidant in their style configuration than their team members. One possible explanation is that the style configuration exhibited by many of the elected leaders comes through to others as forcefulness and decisiveness and that such a profile is in line with a general leadership culture. The results also provide support for the General Decision-Making Style inventory as a measurement of decision styles, because they suggest that the self-reports coincide with displayed, observable behavior.     

Differences between men and women with a dismissing attachment style regarding their attitudes and behaviour in romantic relationships

Research to date has revealed that the association between gender, attachment and the quality and functioning of intimate relationships is complex. This study examined the relationship between gender and attachment styles in attitudes to communication with one's partner and in the number of past relationships in a sample of 746 Spanish undergraduates. The Relationship Questionnaire was administered to them to determine the adult attachment style. The results revealed the existence of differences according to the adult attachment style and gender with regard to the two measured variables, and a significant effect of the interaction between gender and attachment. Dismissing men reported the highest average scores in the number of past relationships, with significant differences appearing when they were compared with secure and preoccupied men. However, dismissing women did not differ from the rest of the women with other attachment styles. When men and women with the same attachment styles were compared in this variable, the only significant differences were found between dismissing men and women (with the latter reporting fewer partners). In the case of attitudes to expressing feelings to one's partner, dismissing men reported the most negative attitudes, compared with secure and preoccupied men. Dismissing women, unlike the men, did not differ in their attitudes either from preoccupied or fearful women. Moreover, clear differences were shown between dismissing men and women in these attitudes (more negative in the case of men).     

Predicting parenting behaviors from Antisocial Practices content scale scores of the MMPI-2 administered during pregnancy

This article examines the relation between scores on the Antisocial Practices (ASP) content scale of the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory-2 (MMPI-2; Butcher, Dahlstrom, Graham, Tellegen, & Kaemmer, 1989) and parenting behaviors in a sample of low-income women. During pregnancy, 141 women were administered the MMPI-2 and then placed into 1 of 3 groups: an antisocial, nonclinical, or clinical control group. When their children were 13 and 24 months old, antisocial mothers were observed to be less understanding and more hostile and harsh in their parenting styles than mothers in the other groups. The nonclinical and clinical control groups did not differ on any measures. Other MMPI-2 measures of antisocial behavior were not predictive of harsh parenting styles. These findings support the predictive and construct validity of the ASP content scale of the MMPI-2.     

UNDERSTANDING STRESS IN FEMALE AND MALE LAW ENFORCEMENT OFFICERS

Gender issues in the male-dominated profession of law enforcement have not been closely examined. In the current study, 52 female officers of a state highway patrol agency were matched with 52 male officers. Participants completed a confidential assessment packet to examine their satisfaction with work, perceived stress, physical symptoms, daily hassles, and aspects of burnout. Results suggest that male officers experience a greater degree of perceived stress and emotional exhaustion and greater dissatisfaction with their work than do women. In female officers, perceived stress was related to physical symptoms, dissatisfaction with the nature of the work, dissatisfaction with co-workers, and feelings of emotional exhaustion. In male officers, perceived stress was related to physical symptoms, dissatisfaction with co-workers, dissatisfaction with work, and emotional exhaustion. Gender differences in terms of officers'expectations and beliefs about the profession as well as the possible differential effects of marital status on occupational stress are discussed.     

Gender differences in workplace bullying among prison officers

The aim of the study was to investigate gender differences in facing and experiencing workplace bullying. The subjects were 773 male and 123 female prison officers (response rate 64%). In all, 20% of the respondents perceived themselves as victims of bullying. No difference was found in this respect between men and women. Female victims had been subjects of sexual harassment significantly more often than their male colleagues. The persons bullying female officers were usually co-workers, whereas men were bullied by co-workers and supervisors equally often. Unsatisfactory features of work and poor social climate were significant predictors of bullying among both men and women. Bullying had similar effects on the feelings of stress, mental health, and job satisfaction of both men and women.     

Adult attachment styles,self‐esteem,and depressive symptoms: A comparison between postpartum and nonpostpartum women in Korea

Life stress related to child bearing has been suggested to increase the risk of maternal depression in vulnerable women who have an insecure relationship. This study examined the relationship between adult attachment security and maternal depression in postpartum women as compared to nonpostpartum women. A total of 254 Korean women were recruited from pediatric hospitals, of whom 119 were in the postpartum period. Participants completed the Relationship Questionnaire, the Beck Depression Inventory, and the Rosenberg Self‐Esteem Scale. Both preoccupied and fearful attachment styles were associated with low self‐esteem and higher levels of depressive symptoms, but a dismissing attachment style was not related to self‐esteem and depression severity. Low self‐esteem was found to mediate the relation between insecure attachment and depression severity; however, this mediating effect differed depending on the insecure attachment style. For preoccupied attachment, the role of self‐esteem as a mediator was observed only in postpartum women, not in nonpostpartum women (moderated mediation). In contrast, for fearful attachment, the mediating effects emerged in both groups. The results highlight the fact that there is a complex mechanism behind the link between interpersonal relationships and risk of maternal depression.     

Influence tactics and salary attainment: A gender-specific analysis

In this article the linkages between upward influence tactics and salary attainment were studied within the context of observed salary differences between men and women. The data for this field study were gathered from 212 male and 82 female business school graduates. Annual salary was regressed on a set of control variables and six dimensions of upward influence. Separate salary equations were estimated for men and women, and used to study sex-based salary differentials. The results indicated that even though there were few mean differences between men and women in terms of person-centered attributes, the characteristics of employing organizations, or the use of upward influence styles, women earned less than men. The set of upward influence tactics uniquely accounted for variation in salaries for both men and women, and there was evidence of gender specificity in the salarly allocation process. The usefulness of considering upward influence tactics when studying the salary allocation process is emphasized, particularly when the goal is to understand observed salary differences between men and women.     

Leadership and Coping Among Air Force Officers

The current study explored the relationship between coping and leadership in a military sample. Data were collected from Air Force officers attending a 6-week professional military education course focusing on leadership development. Correlation analyses illustrate that leadership styles are associated with different styles of coping. Hierarchical regression further demonstrates that transformational leaders use more positive reinterpretation and problem-focused coping strategies and less emotion-focused coping strategies. Transactional leaders utilize more problem-focused coping strategies. Results also demonstrated mixed results on the relationship between transformational leadership and positive reinterpretation.