Major depression, double depression and personality disorders

Personality disorders are much more common among depressive patients than among normal people. Until now, little research has been conducted into the prevalence of personality disorders among patients with both major depression and dysthymia (double depression). The subject of this study is whether depressive patients with dysthymia have more personality disorders than those with no dysthymia. The Vragenlijst voor Kenmerken van de Persoonlijkheid (a Dutch self-report based on the International Personality Disorder Examination) was completed for 211 outpatients with major depression. Approximately 60% of the patients suffer from one or more personality disorders. Depressive patients with dysthymia differ little from the patients without dysthymia, but patients with dysthymia have more cluster A disorders and are more avoidant. Depressive patients without dysthymia do not differ from the patients with dysthymia in terms of symptoms. Depressive patients with personality disorders have significantly more symptoms than the patients without these disorders. There is no interaction between dysthymia and personality disorder.     

Negative attributional style, hopelessness depression and endogenous depression

The hopelessness theory of depression [Abramson, L. Y., Metalsky, G. I. & Alloy, L. B. (1989). Hopelessness depression: a theory-based subtype of depression. Psychological Review, 96, 358-372.] postulates that a negative attributional style represents a risk factor for a particular constellation of depressive symptoms, termed 'hopelessness depression'. Four studies tested the relation of negative attributional style to hopelessness depression symptoms versus endogenous depression symptoms. Despite the considerable overlap of hopelessness and endogenous depression symptoms, negative attributional style was more related to the former than the latter, consistent with hopelessness theory.     

Stress, externality, and depression

Previous research has found mixed support for the possibility that locus of control moderates the effects of life stress on depression. Two methodological choices may have influenced previous findings: the use of a unidimensional rather than a multidimensional locus of control scale, and reliance on linear statistical methods using median splits. We attempted to correct these choices by using the Levenson IPC scale (1974) and multiple regression analyses in a female undergraduate population (N = 158). The results supported use of a multidimensional scale, since Stress, Internality, and Powerful Others were found to have main effects on depression whereas Chance interacted with life stress. The question of whether locus of control refers to responsibility for causing an event, i.e., self-blame, or belief in control over future events, i.e., coping behavior, was discussed.     

Anhedonia, asthenia, and depression

In a sample of 264 university students, anhedonia scores were not associated with scores for severity of fatigue.     

Vulnerability to depression,mild depression,and degree of self-schema consolidation

The present study investigated the degree of consolidation of self-schema content in mildly depressed individuals, individuals cognitively vulnerable to depression (but currently nondepressed), and nonvulnerable-nondepressed controls. All three groups of subjects were presented with pairs of adjectives involving one depressed and one nondepressed content adjective, and were asked to decide which of the two adjectives described them the best (or least). Following this, subjects rated each adjective on a 9-point degree of self-reference scale. On the basis of these two types of self-referent judgments, a measure of decision inconsistency was computed for each subject. In accord with predictions generated from a self-schema model of depression, similar decision inconsistency scores were found for mildly depressed and vulnerable-nondepressed individuals. In turn, both of these groups revealed greater decision inconsistencies than normal controls (the nonvulnerable-nondepressed group). Using the inconsistency measure as an index of the degree of consolidation of self-schema content, these findings suggest that relatively poor consolidation of depressed and nondepressed self-schema content may relate to both the etiology and maintenance of depression.     

Evolution,depression and counselling

In this paper a framework of evolutionary psychology is used to develop a model of depression. In this model depression is seen as not normally a biochemical illness or disorder, but instead as usually due to the person becoming trapped within a psychologically activated but unwanted and inappropriate suite of natural emotions, with the activation coming from a perception of a major decline in personal usefulness that can include failure, guilt, shame or perceived rejection. A neuropsychological observation that supports this model is described. The implications of the model for counselling with depressed clients are outlined in terms of a multi-dimensional approach, oriented around perceived usefulness. It is predicted that clients receiving such counselling will recover more rapidly and be less likely to suffer a relapse than those receiving just drugs or a form of counselling that covers fewer dimensions.     

Aggression,depression, and bullying others

A questionnaire survey of a representative sample of 2083 Norwegian pupils in Grade 8 revealed a positive and significant correlation between depressive symptoms and bullying others and a strong positive correlation between both power‐related (ProPow) and affiliation‐related (ProAff) proactive aggressiveness and bullying others among both boys and girls. We investigated whether the correlation between Depressive Symptoms and Bullying Others was spurious. For boys, a multiple‐regression analysis with Bullying Others as the dependent variable revealed that both ProPow and ProAff had strong separate effects on Bullying Others, whereas the separate effect from Depressive Symptoms was not significant. Interactions between Depressive Symptoms and ProPow and ProAff on Bullying Others were not present. It was concluded that the significant correlation between Depressive Symptoms and Bullying Others was spurious for boys. For girls, ProAff, and ProPow × Depressive Symptoms had significant and rather strong separate impacts on Bullying Others. Implications for intervention and further research were discussed. Aggr. Behav. 28:198–206, 2002. © 2002 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.     

Self-defeating personality, self-reinforcement, and depression

51 men who were more self-defeating were observed to use lower frequency of self-reinforcement and to be more depressed. The results were seen as supporting Beck's early work which proposed a relationship between depression and self-defeating patterns. They also provide construct validity for the measure of Self-defeating Personality used in the study.     

Perfectionism, depression, and academic performance

In samples of 30 Canadian and 117 American undergraduates, academic performance was more strongly correlated with perfectionism scores (Revised Almost Perfect Scale) (r = .20 and -.17) than with those on self-reported depression (CES-Depression) (r = -.09).     

Creativity, depression and suicide.

The relationship between suicide and creativity has long been a subject of considerable concern. The author presents evidence indicating that in fact depression, suicide, and creativity are related. Several hypotheses for the relationship are posited. It is suggested that the same changes in the serotonergic system that are associated with depression in general and with impulsive suicides and homicides in the extreme may also be responsible for an element of risk taking that characterizes creativity and innovation in a person psychodynamically predisposed to being creative.     

Attributional style, dreaming and depression

The relationship between attributional style, depression and dreaming was explored by analysing dream reports from 80 subjects for evidence of attributional style using the Content Analysis of Verbatim Material (CAVE) technique. These scores were then compared with a waking measure of attributional style—the Expanded Attributional Style Questionnaire (EASQ) and with levels of depression as measured by the BDI. Contrary to expectations, dream attributional style did not correlate with waking attributional style, nor was there a significant correlation between internal, global and stable attributional style in dreams and level of depression. Results did support previous research that an internal, stable and global waking attributional style correlates with depression.     

Masculinity,femininity, self-esteem,and subclinical depression

A study involving 197 university undergraduates (83 males, 114 females) tested the hypothesis that depressive symptoms assessed by the short form of the Beck Depression Inventory (BDI) would be negatively related to masculinity (M) scores from the Personal Attributes Questionnaire (PAQ) but unrelated to femininity scores (F). It was also hypothesized that the negative relationship between masculinity and self-reports of depressive symptoms may be due to shared variance in self-esteem. The results supported predictions. In particular, the negative relationship linking masculinity to depressive symptoms disappeared when the effects of self-esteem were partialed out. Results are discussed in terms of the thesis that self-esteem may reflect in part the dominant masculine values of Western-type cultures and that manifestations of psychological ill health may occur when there is reduced opportunity to engage in behaviors that reflect these values.     

Masculinity,femininity, life stress,and depression

This study explored the effects of masculinity, femininity, and life stress on depression. Four hundred and two subjects (266 females and 136 males) completed the Bem Sex Role Inventory, the Life Experiences Survey, and the Beck Depression Inventory. Results of a regression analysis indicated significant effects of life stress, masculinity, and femininity on depression. Although masculinity and, to a lesser extent, femininity, were significant predictors of depression, life stress accounted for a substantially greater proportion of the variance. The implications of the results are discussed with respect to the role of masculinity and femininity as susceptibility factors in depression associated with stressful life experiences.     

Occupational stress, social support, and depression

A model of occupational stress, social support, locus of control, and depression among family physicians was developed. Two hundred and ten family physicians were administered measures of occupational stress, social support, locus of control, and depression. The hypothesized model was evaluated using structural equation models (LISREL). Results indicate that occupational stress exerts a direct effect on depression. This relationship is moderated directly by family social and emotional support and indirectly by the influence of locus of control on family social support. Support from peers was not significantly related to depression. Findings suggest that individuals with a strong sense of personal control also possess beneficial support systems in the presence of stressful situations.     

Pessimistic self-preoccupation, performance deficits, and depression

Three studies are presented testing a model of the cognitive performance deficits shown in depression. The model proposes that such deficits occur as an interaction of expectancy and focus of attention variables, that is, in the presence of both low expectancy of success and high self-focus. Study 1 was a pilot study which documented that depressed undergraduates evidence poorer anagram performance, greater self-focus, and lower pretask expectancies than do nondepressed subjects. Study 2 showed that nondepressed undergraduates evidence performance deficits only when both expectancy is lowered and self-focus is increased. Study 3 suggested that depressed undergraduates' performance deficits are overcome either by lowering self-focus or by raising expectancy. Discussed are discrepancies between self-report and performance data, the relevance of these studies to the test anxiety literature, the need to integrate literature concerning the effects of depression, anxiety, and self-esteem on performance, and how the interactive roles of positive expectancy and focus of attention may be related to effective coping in a variety of situations.     

Feminist consciousness raising,self-concept,and depression

This article summarizes a study in which before and after interviews and questionnaires were administered to 73 women who had registered for feminist consciousness-raising groups in the state of Connecticut, and three groups were observed over a period of 10 to 16 weeks, in order to explore the unintended psychological benefits of participation. The results show that consciousness raising may help women to increase their sense of control and externalize their attributions of blame, and may consequently increase self-esteem and reduce depression among participants. The article concludes with a discussion relating these results to studies on race and class differences in mental health, and comparing consciousness raising to psychotherapy.This article is based on research conducted with the aid of a grant from the National Institute of Mental Health in Psychosocial Epidemiology (5-T32-MH-14235). The assistance of Drs. Jerome K. Myers, Myrna M. Weissman, and Mary Curran is gratefully acknowledged. Thanks also to Janet Lever and Mickey Schwartz for their most helpful comments.Currently an assistant professor of sociology at Arizona State University, Tempe, Arizona 85287     

Distinguishing bipolar depression, major depression, and schizophrenia with the MMPI-2 clinical and content scales

Clinical and content scales from the MMPI-2 (Butcher, Dahlstrom, Graham, Tellegen, & Kaemmer, 1989) were used to examine the capacity of these scales to assist in the differential diagnosis of a sample of 212 psychiatric patients-137 with major depression; 43 with schizophrenia; and 32 with bipolar disorder, depressed state. Consistent with the previous literature, the clinical scales Depression (D), and Schizophrenia (Sc), and the content scales Depression (DEP), and Low Self-Esteem (LSE) best distinguished major depression from schizophrenia; the content scale DEP proved to be the most powerful predictor in distinguishing bipolar depression from schizophrenia. No clinical or content scale proved to be effective in distinguishing patients with bipolar depression from patients with major depression. In general, the content scales outperformed the clinical scales.     

Major depression,chronic minor depression,and the five‐factor model of personality

Fifty‐eight outpatients with major depression completed the NEO Personality Inventory at intake (time 1) and after up to three months of anti‐depressant treatment (time 2). Within this group, 26 patients met additional Research Diagnostic Criteria for chronic minor depression. Repeated‐measures analyses revealed significant decreases in Neuroticism scores, and significant increases in Extraversion and Conscientiousness scores, from time 1 to time 2 for both patient groups. In addition, despite similar symptom severity at time 2, the patients with major depression+chronic minor depression scored significantly higher on the Angry Hostility facet of Neuroticism and significantly lower on Agreeableness than those with major depression alone. We suggest from these findings that Angry Hostility and low Agreeableness may represent a trait vulnerability in individuals with chronic minor depression that persists even following remission of the major depressive state, and that this may help to explain their high rates of relapse and recurrence. Copyright © 2002 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Guilt, guilt-evoking events, depression, and eating disorders

A long theoretical tradition has linked guilt with internalizing disorders. We find no evidence, however, that a greater personality proclivity for guilt is related to depression or eating disturbances as reported by 85 female undergraduates. Females also described guilt-producing incidents involving school versus eating and exercise. We examined reactions to the events including guilt feelings and perceived effectiveness in alleviating these feelings, intropunitive responses, action tendencies, and rationalizations. Both depression and eating disturbances were unrelated to guilt feelings over school, but were related to guilt feelings over eating and exercise. Ineffective alleviation of guilt feelings in both domains was correlated with depression and greater eating disturbances. Women who reacted to guilt-producing events with fewer intropunitive responses such as rumination and self-hatred, and by confiding in others, distancing, and rationalizing their actions through justifications and excuses were less likely to have eating disturbances.