Acquiescence and response skewness in scale construction: a paradox

Kirton's version of the Wilson C Scale is primarily a version wherein items of the C Scale that attract very skewed responses have been eliminated. Contrary to what seems obvious, it is shown that the Kirton scale shows more, rather than less, influence from acquiescent response bias. Although such influence was not a serious problem with this particular scale, the finding does give grounds for believing that some skewed items may make a valuable contribution to an additive (‘Likert’) scale.     

初中生数学自我效能问卷的编制

根据国内外关于数学自我效能研究的文献,结合我国初中生数学学习的内容特点与实际背景情况,编制数学自我效能问卷。研究以初一与初二学生为对象,采用开放式问卷对188名学生和53名数学教师进行调查,首先编制出44个项目的初测问卷;采用封闭式问卷对479名学生的初测结果进行验证性因素分析与项目分析,形成了包含日常生活中数学任务的效能、数学相关课程的效能与数学学业问题解决效能三个维度的26个项目的正式问卷;最后对350名学生施测正式问卷。分析研究结果表明,该数学自我效能问卷的因素结构清晰,具有合理的信度和效度。     

A Comparison of the Nomological Networks Associated With Forced-Choice and Likert Formats of the Narcissistic Personality Inventory

The Narcissistic Personality Inventory (NPI) is one of the most popular measures of narcissism. However, its use of a forced-choice response set might negatively affect some of its psychometric properties. The purpose of this research was to compare a Likert version of the NPI, in which only the narcissistic response of each pair was given, to the original NPI, in 3 samples of participants (N = 1,109). To this end, we compared the nomological networks of the forced-choice and Likert formats of the NPI in relation to alternative measures of narcissism, narcissistic personality disorder, entitlement, self-esteem, general personality traits (reported by self and informants), interpersonal styles, and general pathological traits included in the DSM–5. The Likert format NPI—total and subscales—manifested similar construct validity to the original forced-choice format across all criteria with only minor differences that seem to be due mainly to the increased reliability and variability found in the Likert NPI Entitlement/Exploitativeness subscale. These results provide evidence that a version of the NPI that employs a Likert format can justifiably be used in place of the original.     

Testing the bipolarity of the Jungian functions

In this article, I offer an alternative explanation for recent studies that have questioned the assumed bipolarity of the Jungian functions measured by the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI) due to the failure to observe negative correlations between the hypothesized opposite functions when a Likert format is used in place of the MBTI's forced-choice format (Cowan, 1989; Girelli & Stake, 1993; Loomis & Singer, 1980). It was suggested that the acquiescence response set might be partially responsible. A new instrument was constructed using agree-disagree items. Negative correlations between the hypothesized opposite functions were not observed. To deal with the acquiescence response set, participants were ranked on the number of statements endorsed, and the scores for the middle third of participants were analyzed again For these participants, correlations of -.67 and -.69 between each pair of theoretically opposite functions were found. I conclude thai this largely refutes criticisms of the bipolarity assumption, but there is still reason to develop a measure not relying on the assumption.     

The Strelau Temperament Inventory-revised (STI-R): Theoretical considerations and scale development

The development of a revised Strelau Temperament Inventory (STI-R) is reported. It is assumed that the STI-R provides a measure of the basic central nervous system (CNS) properties (strength of excitation, strength of inhibition, and mobility of the CNS) as understood by Pavlov. On the basis of a series of studies, the development of the final forms of the revised STI has undergone several steps. The following forms have been elaborated: (1) a 252-item pilot form of the STI-R; (2) a 166-item STI-R with ‘yes’ and ‘no’ answer format; (3) a short form (84 items) of the STI-R (STI-RS) with ‘yes’ and ‘no’ answer format; (4) a 166-item STI-R with a 4-point Likert scale; and (5) an 84-item STI-RS with a 4-point rating scale. The psychometric characteristics of the consecutive versions of the revised STI improved from step to step, and in general these characteristics are judged as being satisfactory. Especially recommended by the authors are versions (4) and (5), which have, among other things, the highest reliability scores. They are regarded as the final forms of the STI-R and STI-RS.     

Sexism: A tri-dimensional phenomenon

A review of the existing sex-role scales indicated the need for a relatively short multidimensional scale with established validity and reliability. The scale reported herein, consisting of 20 self-administered items in Likert format with Guttman scoring option, measures attitudes toward sex roles in three broad areas: internal familial division of labor, external (economic) division of labor, and perceived sex differences. One hundred and ninety-seven carefully selected and worded items were pretested by administration to a diverse group of 154 respondents. The results were submitted to factor analytic procedures leading to one dimension comprising two sets of items — those measuring attitudes toward internal division of labor, and those measuring attitudes toward external division of labor — and another dimension comprising items measuring attitudes toward perceived sex differences. These sets of items were treated as three subscales and submitted to Guttman procedures. The coefficients of reproducibility and scalability for each subscale were deemed satisfactory. Furthermore, 17 of the 20 items on the scale were able to distinguish females' responses from those of males. The alpha coefficient of reliability for the 20 items was .94.Social Science Verification SystemsAdapted from a paper presented at the meeting of the Southwestern Sociological Association, Houston, Texas, April 12–15, 1978. The authors wish to acknowledge the helpful comments of their colleagues, Professor Raymond A. Eve, of the Department of Sociology, and Professor Richard Gorsuch, of the Graduate School of Social Work, The University of Texas at Arlington. The authors take full responsibility for the results and interpretations of the analyses.     

Forced-choice assessments of personality for selection: evaluating issues of normative assessment and faking resistance

Recent research suggests multidimensional forced-choice (MFC) response formats may provide resistance to purposeful response distortion on personality assessments. It remains unclear, however, whether these formats provide normative trait information required for selection contexts. The current research evaluated score correspondences between an MFC format measure and 2 Likert-type measures in honest and instructed-faking conditions. In honest response conditions, scores from the MFC measure appeared valid indicators of normative trait standing. Under faking conditions, the MFC measure showed less score inflation than the Likert measure at the group level of analysis. In the individual-level analyses, however, the MFC measure was as affected by faking as was the Likert measure. Results suggest the MFC format is not a viable method to control faking.     

The First Twenty Years of the Will and the Ways: An Examination of Score Reliability Distribution on Snyder’s Dispositional Hope Scale

C. R. Snyder has established hope theory as an important contributor to positive psychology. As the empirical evidence continues to grow, hope researchers need to have confidence that their measures will produce reliable scores. This study presents a reliability generalization on both the internal consistency and test–retest reliability estimates from Snyder’s dispositional hope scale. While over 300 published works were found to have cited the target article 74 present internal consistency scores and 17 reported scores for test–retest reliability. The results of the reliability generalization suggest support for the score reliabilities produced by the dispositional hope scale. However, internal consistency was higher for studies using the eight-item response format (α = 0.82) compared to those using the four-item response format (α = 0.77). Additionally, the test–retest score reliability was high 0.80 with no statistically significant differences by response format. Findings also demonstrated that score reliability estimates were not significantly influenced by the coded sample characteristics.     

Type D assessment in patients with chronic heart failure and peripheral arterial disease: evaluation of the experimental DS(3) scale using item response theory

Type D personality refers to a clustering of 2 stable personality traits, namely negative affectivity and social inhibition. Currently Type D is standardly assessed using the DS14. An experimental Type D personality scale, the DS((3)), was developed to examine an avenue for assessing Type D more efficiently. The DS((3)) differs from the DS14 in its use of a 3-point Likert scale to rate responses, use of all negatively worded items, and a rearranged presentation of items. This article examines the psychometric properties of this questionnaire by examining its dimensionality, item and scale properties, and cutoff scores to screen for Type D personality. Data from 2 clinical samples were analyzed using item response theory. The results suggest that the DS((3)) is a potentially suitable instrument for Type D assessment. It has high reliability, and Type D personality classification based on this scale corresponds well with the current standard Type D assessment based on the DS14.     

Response styles in factual items: Personal,contextual and cultural correlates

This study investigated response styles in factual items and explored their associations with personal, contextual and cultural factors. Responses on various factual questions, cognitive tests and interviewers' observational data from a total of 152,514 respondents in 22 countries in the Programme for the International Assessment of Adult Competencies (PIAAC) were analysed. Indexes of extreme, midpoint and acquiescent response styles were extracted from Likert‐scale and dichotomous responses of factual items. A general response style (GRS) with a positive loading of extreme response style and negative loadings of midpoint and acquiescent response styles was confirmed. This factor showed a similar cross‐cultural patterning as another general factor from attitudinal and self‐evaluative items of Likert scales in a previous study, which indicated the pervasiveness of response styles irrespective of types of survey items. In a multilevel analysis, the individual‐level GRS was found to be negatively related to being male, educational level and literacy competency, and positively related to 3rd‐person presence and background noise, and at country level negatively associated with socioeconomic development. Cross‐level interactions were also found. Implications on the pervasiveness and nature of response styles are discussed.     

Effects of varying numbers of Likert scale points on factor structure of the Rosenberg Self‐Esteem Scale

Likert‐type rating scales are among the most widely used tools in psychological research. Different numbers of response categories would likely affect response style, data distribution, reliability, and construct validity. There is a lack of research in factor structure invariance under Likert scales with different numbers of categories. The purpose of this study is to examine the effects of varying numbers of Likert points (4–11) on scale properties such as factor structure, external validity, and latent means based on the Rosenberg Self‐Esteem Scale (M. Rosenberg, 1989 ). The sample consists of 1,807 students from secondary schools in Macau. Confirmatory factor analysis shows that the correlated two‐factor model is the most appropriate one; longitudinal invariance analysis reveals that measurement invariance across Likert scales was satisfied at the scalar level. In addition, latent mean scores on the two factors as well as observed means on the subscales are comparable across Likert scales. Moreover, the measurement model across Likert scales exhibit similar external validity. Although psychometric properties are mostly similar among a different number of points, the 4‐point Likert scale is not recommended for its higher skewness and lower loadings; the 11‐point Likert scale from 0 to 10 is slightly preferred for its higher loadings and composite reliability.     

Toward a complete decision model of item and source recognition: A discrete-state approach

In source-monitoring experiments, participants study items from two sources (A and B). At test, they are presented Source A items, Source B items, and new items. They are asked to decide whether a test item is old or new (item memory) and whether it is a Source A or a Source B item (source memory). Hautus, Macmillan, and Rotello (2008) developed models, couched in a bivariate signal detection framework, that account for item and source memory across several data sets collected in a confidence-rating response format. The present article enlarges the set of candidate models with a discrete-state model. The model is a straightforward extension of Bayen, Murnane, and Erdfelder's (1996) multinomial model of source discrimination to confidence ratings. On the basis of the evaluation criteria adopted by Hautus et al., it provides a better account of the data than do Hautus et al.'s models.     

中国高中学生中的反应风格及其效应

通过测试正反向陈述的NEO-FFI和EPQ,探讨了中国高中生中默认、极端化、折中化、弹性反应风格的特点,及题目陈述方向的改变对其人格测验信效度的影响。结果发现反应风格在中国高中生中确实存在,折中化和弹性风格对测验的影响最为严重,其次为极端化风格,默认风格则可能不算一种偏差。NEO-FFI量表在使用反向陈述题目时信效度下降,说明由于教育水平低而使高中生理解反向题时存在困难     

Reliability and validity of children's reports of migraine headache symptoms

The present study was concerned with whether children's responses to a questionnaire correspond with parents' reports of the child's headache symptoms and whether these responses correlate with self-monitored headache activity. Twenty-eight children, ages 7 years–16 years, participated in the study. Using a questionnaire format, data on a wide variety of headache characteristics were gathered from parents and children. During the subsequent 4 weeks, children monitored their headache activity and medication usage. Results were generally supportive of the validity and reliability of children's reports via a questionnaire format. The responses to the frequency of headache and medication usage were found to predict the responses over the next month, whereas the response on the duration of headache did not. Significant correlations for most headache-symptom items indicated that children and parents agree on their presence and severity. This investigation is the first step in developing a systematic assessment procedure for childhood headache.     

Effects of estimation methods on making trait-level inferences from ordered categorical items for assessing psychopathology

In assessments of attitudes, personality, and psychopathology, unidimensional scale scores are commonly obtained from Likert scale items to make inferences about individuals' trait levels. This study approached the issue of how best to combine Likert scale items to estimate test scores from the practitioner's perspective: Does it really matter which method is used to estimate a trait? Analyses of 3 data sets indicated that commonly used methods could be classified into 2 groups: methods that explicitly take account of the ordered categorical item distributions (i.e., partial credit and graded response models of item response theory, factor analysis using an asymptotically distribution-free estimator) and methods that do not distinguish Likert-type items from continuously distributed items (i.e., total score, principal component analysis, maximum-likelihood factor analysis). Differences in trait estimates were found to be trivial within each group. Yet the results suggested that inferences about individuals' trait levels differ considerably between the 2 groups. One should therefore choose a method that explicitly takes account of item distributions in estimating unidimensional traits from ordered categorical response formats. Consequences of violating distributional assumptions were discussed.     

A Normative Study of TAT Ambiguity

Type D personality refers to a clustering of 2 stable personality traits, namely negative affectivity and social inhibition. Currently Type D is standardly assessed using the DS14. An experimental Type D personality scale, the DS⁽³⁾, was developed to examine an avenue for assessing Type D more efficiently. The DS⁽³⁾ differs from the DS14 in its use of a 3-point Likert scale to rate responses, use of all negatively worded items, and a rearranged presentation of items. This article examines the psychometric properties of this questionnaire by examining its dimensionality, item and scale properties, and cutoff scores to screen for Type D personality. Data from 2 clinical samples were analyzed using item response theory. The results suggest that the DS⁽³⁾ is a potentially suitable instrument for Type D assessment. It has high reliability, and Type D personality classification based on this scale corresponds well with the current standard Type D assessment based on the DS14.     

Using Automated Essay Scores as an Anchor When Equating Constructed Response Writing Tests

Assessments consisting of only a few extended constructed response items (essays) are not typically equated using anchor test designs as there are typically too few essay prompts in each form to allow for meaningful equating. This article explores the idea that output from an automated scoring program designed to measure writing fluency (a common objective of many writing prompts) can be used in place of a more traditional anchor. The linear-logistic equating method used in this article is a variant of the Tucker linear equating method appropriate for the limited score range typical of essays. The procedure is applied to historical data. Although the procedure only results in small improvements over identity equating (not equating prompts), it does produce a viable alternative, and a mechanism for checking that the identity equating is appropriate. This may be particularly useful for measuring rater drift or equating mixed format tests.     

Distinguishing Between Latent Classes and Continuous Factors with Categorical Outcomes: Class Invariance of Parameters of Factor Mixture Models

Factor mixture models are latent variable models with categorical and continuous latent variables that can be used as a model-based approach to clustering. A previous article covered the results of a simulation study showing that in the absence of model violations, it is usually possible to choose the correct model when fitting a series of models with different numbers of classes and factors within class. The response format in the first study was limited to normally distributed outcomes. This article has 2 main goals, first, to replicate parts of the first study with 5-point Likert scale and binary outcomes, and second, to address the issue of testing class invariance of thresholds and loadings. Testing for class invariance of parameters is important in the context of measurement invariance and when using mixture models to approximate nonnormal distributions. Results show that it is possible to discriminate between latent class models and factor models even if responses are categorical. Comparing models with and without class-specific parameters can lead to incorrectly accepting parameter invariance if the compared models differ substantially with respect to the number of estimated parameters. The simulation study is complemented with an illustration of a factor mixture analysis of 10 binary depression items obtained from a female subsample of the Virginia Twin Registry.