The Academic Conference as a Chilly Climate for Women: Effects of Gender Representation on Experiences of Sexism,Coping Responses,and Career Intentions

Across many disciplines, women are underrepresented in faculty positions relative to men. The present research focuses on the academic conference as a setting because it is a gateway to an academic career and a context in which women might experience sexism. We surveyed 329 presenters (63% women) from three U.S. national academic conferences, which differed in women-to-men ratios, about their perceptions of the conference climate, their coping tactics (e.g., gender performance, silence, or voice), and their intentions to exit the conference or academia. The greater the representation of women at the conference relative to men, the less likely were women to perceive sexism and to feel they had to behave in a masculine manner in that setting. In contrast, women who perceived the conference as sexist and felt silenced also expressed increased intentions to exit from academic careers. Men’s perceptions of sexism predicted increased intentions to exit from that particular conference, but not from academia. Because conferences signal the norms of a discipline, it is important to explore their climates as they relate to gender. Perhaps especially for new and aspiring female academics, they may signal devalued status and lack of fit and as such play an inadvertent role in the “leaky pipeline.” We discuss strategies that conference organizers could implement to mitigate sexist climates, including broader inclusion of women in speaking and leadership roles and explicit attention to cues that women belong.     

THE CLIMATE FOR WOMEN IN ACADEMIC SCIENCE: THE GOOD, THE BAD, AND THE CHANGEABLE

Deficits theory posits that women scientists have not yet achieved parity with men scientists because of structural aspects of the scientific environment that provide them with fewer opportunities and more obstacles than men. The current study of 208 faculty women scientists tested this theory by examining the effect of personal negative experiences and perceptions of the workplace climate on job satisfaction, felt influence, and productivity. Hierarchical multiple regression results indicated that women scientists experiencing more sexual harassment and gender discrimination reported poorer job outcomes. Additionally, perceptions of a generally positive, nonsexist climate, as well as effective leadership, were related to positive job outcomes after controlling for harassment and discrimination. We discuss implications for the retention and career success of women in academic science.     

Supportive When Not Supported? Male Responses to Negative Climates for Women

This study examined the relationship between perceived climate for women and job satisfaction in a male-dominated context, focusing on moderating variables which may augment or decrease this relationship for men. Specifically, it was predicted that job satisfaction will be lower for women and men in a male-dominated context when they perceive a negative climate for women, but that this relationship will be moderated for men based on the levels of support and exclusion they experience. Using a sample of 239 (75.7% male) professors, staff, graduate assistants, and undergraduate assistants in a male-dominated science department of a large Midwestern university, we found that perceptions of a negative climate for women were significantly related to lower reports of job satisfaction for both women and men. However, perceived organizational support moderated this relationship, such that the job satisfaction of men who felt highly supported by the organization were unaffected by the perceived climate for women. Discussion and implications of results are included.     

Ambivalent Sexism and Relationship Patterns among Women and Men in Ukraine

The present study was designed to examine the ambivalent sexist attitudes toward women and men in a sample of Ukrainian college students and young professionals. Findings support previous theoretical assertions that in reaction to current trends toward cultural remasculinization, Eastern European women may hold attitudes similar to women in other cultures marked by gender inequality (Glick & Fiske, 2001). As predicted, Ukrainian women were found to hold stronger benevolent sexist attitudes about their own gender roles and more hostile attitudes toward men than were their male counterparts. In addition, benevolent and hostile attitudes about the genders held by both women and men were related to negative relationship attitudes such as fear of intimacy, and anxious or avoidant attachments for both genders.     

Cross‐level,three‐way interactions among work‐group climate,gender, and frequency of harassment on morale and withdrawal outcomes of sexual harassment

We examined the effects of gender and work‐groups' perceptions of climate for sexual harassment on the relationship between individuals' sexual harassment experiences and job‐related outcomes (namely, job satisfaction, affective organizational commitment, work withdrawal, and job withdrawal). Drawing from a variety of theories, we proposed that a beneficial climate would buffer men from negative outcomes, but would intensify negative outcomes for women. Significant three‐way interactions were found for job satisfaction, affective organizational commitment, and job withdrawal. Results indicated that beneficial work‐group climate perceptions buffered men from decrements in job satisfaction and work withdrawal, but intensified decrements in all three outcomes for women. Implications for research and practice are discussed.     

VOICE MATTERS: BUFFERING THE IMPACT OF A NEGATIVE CLIMATE FOR WOMEN IN SCIENCE

The current study examined whether women scientists' perceptions of voice moderate the impact of poor workplace climates on job satisfaction and whether effective leadership and mentoring promote women's voice. Survey data were collected from 135 faculty women in the natural sciences. The results from multiple regression analyses indicated that negative (e.g., sexist, hostile) departmental climates were related to lower job satisfaction. However, voice interacted with climate, such that women who perceived that they had more voice in departmental matters showed higher levels of job satisfaction than those who perceived having less voice. An additional regression indicated that mentoring by other women (but not men) in academia and effective departmental leadership were positively related to women's sense of voice. Theoretical and practical implications for the retention and success of women in male-dominated fields are discussed.     

Mediators of the relationship between racial identity and life satisfaction in a community sample of African American women and men

Few empirical studies have explored the mechanisms through which racial identity, the importance of racial group membership, affects well-being for racial/ethnic minorities. Using a community sample of 161 African American adults, the present study examined whether the association between racial identity (centrality, public regard, and private regard) and life satisfaction is mediated by two identity functions, belongingness and discrimination. Our results indicated that the relationships of centrality and private regard with life satisfaction were mediated by perceptions of belongingness. Furthermore, gender moderated the strength of each of these mediating effects, such that belongingness mediated these relationships for women but not for men. Our results also indicated that the relationship between public regard and life satisfaction was mediated by perceptions of discrimination. Furthermore, higher public regard was related to lower perceptions of discrimination for women but not men. However, a combined model for public regard and life satisfaction as mediated by discrimination failed to show moderated mediation. We discuss these results in relation to research and theory on racial identity and intersectionality.     

Why are Benevolent Sexists Happier?

Research indicates that the endorsement of sexist ideology is linked to higher subjective wellbeing for both men and women. We examine gender differences in the rationalisations which drive this effect in an egalitarian nation (New Zealand). Results from a nationally representative sample (N?=?6,100) indicated that the endorsement of Benevolent Sexism (BS) predicted life satisfaction through different mechanisms for men and women. For men, BS was directly associated with life satisfaction. For women, the palliative effect of BS was indirect and occurred because BS-ideology positioning women as deserving of men??s adoration and protection was linked to general perceptions of gender relations as fair and equitable, which in turn predicted greater levels of life satisfaction.     

What Looks Like Sexism and Why? The Effect of Comment Type and Perpetrator Type on Women's Perceptions of Sexism

ABSTRACT. Sexist comments are not perceived equally in the eyes of women. We extend previous research by examining the degree to which multiple types of potentially sexist comments made by multiple types of men are perceived as sexist. Further, we examine the degree to which three possible mediators—prototypicality, perceived intent, and interdependence—explained these effects. Female undergraduate students (N = 248) were randomly assigned to read a scenario in which a hostile sexist, benevolent sexist, or objectifying comment was made by one of three types of men: a stranger, their boss, or their boyfriend. Results demonstrate that hostile sexism was perceived as more sexist than benevolent sexism or objectification. Comments made by boyfriends were also rated as less sexist than those made by bosses or strangers. Furthermore, perceptions of prototypicality of the comment or perpetrator and perceived intent to harm mediated the effect of study manipulations on perceptions of sexism.     

An Examination of Daily Experiences of Sexism and Reactivity among Women in U.S. Male-Dominated Academic Majors Using Experience Sampling Methodology

Retrospective surveys and qualitative research have found that women in male-dominated majors (MDMs) commonly experience sexism during college, but less research has been devoted to better understand the daily experiences of sexism and attitudinal reactivity—defined as the likelihood that an individual’s attitudes will change as a result of sexism. This study utilized experience sampling methodology, which involves participants reporting current experiences multiple times per day, to better understand the unique daily experiences of sexism and reactivity among women in MDMs compared to both men in MDMs and women in gender-neutral majors (GNMs). For 2 weeks, four times a day, 120 U.S. college students (40 women in MDMs, 40 men in MDMs, 40 women in GNMs) were signaled to report sexist events that occurred in the last hour, current attitudes toward fit with their major, and academic motivation. Although a majority experienced at least one sexist event during the 2 weeks, results indicated that, unexpectedly, women in MDMs did not experience more sexist events around the time they attended a major class compared to the control groups. Women in MDMs, however, were more reactive to sexism. During the same hour they reported sexism, women in MDMs (unlike students in control groups) reported lower attitudes toward fit with their major. Results suggest that interventions should focus on creating contextual resources that may help women in MDMs cope with sexism.

     

Organizations Behaving Badly: Antecedents and Consequences of Uncivil Workplace Environments

The present study investigated the relationship between employees’ perceptions of five characteristics emphasized in their work organization (i.e., individualism, hostile interaction styles, competition, hierarchical governance, and email reliance) and the occurrence of incivility in that context. We also examined how perceptions of uncivil environments, in turn, related to personal experiences of workplace incivility and negative outcomes for targets. The proposed model was examined in two samples of university faculty. Study 1 tested the model with three organizational characteristics (individualism, hostile interaction styles, and competition) and three outcomes (job satisfaction, turnover intentions, and physical health) in a sample of faculty from a wide range of departments at a large Southern university. The second study investigated two additional organizational characteristics (hierarchical governance and email reliance) and an additional outcome (psychological distress) in a nationwide sample of law faculty. Results demonstrated that all but one of the characteristics (email reliance) related to perceptions of an uncivil workplace environment; uncivil environment perceptions, in turn, predicted personal experiences of incivility and negative occupational and health outcomes.     

Changes in the Frequency of Coworker Incivility: Roles of Work Hours,Workplace Sex Ratio,Supervisor Leadership Style,and Incivility

Previous research has identified individual characteristics that affect experiences of coworker incivility. However, much less is known about environmental characteristics that affect these experiences. Drawing on the social learning theory and the frustration–aggression hypothesis, this study examined the effects of supervisor incivility and work hours on coworker incivility. Data collected from 692 full-time employees showed that changes in the frequency of supervisor incivility positively predicted changes in the frequency of coworker incivility over the next 6-month period. This relationship tended to be stronger for employees who had a supervisor lower rather than higher in the levels of autocratic leadership style. Furthermore, changes in work hours positively predicted changes in coworker incivility. The workplace sex ratio was not an important factor that differentiated experiences of coworker incivility for either men or women. The results of this study highlight the importance of attending to the environmental characteristics of the workplace to understand the occurrence of coworker incivility.     

Gender and the relationship between perceived fairness of pay or promotion and job satisfaction.

Brockner and Adsit (1986) found that satisfaction with an exchange relationship was more strongly related to perceptions of equity among men than women. Kahn (1972) reported that men were more likely than women to distribute outcomes to individuals in direct proportion to their input. We evaluated potential gender differences among 12,979 personnel in 30 different organizational systems in (a) correlations between fairness and job satisfaction scores and (b) standardized group differences in the perceived amounts of pay and promotion fairness and expressed levels of facet and global job satisfaction. The fairness-satisfaction relationship was not higher for men, and there were no practical differences in fairness perceptions and job satisfaction between men and women.     

Perceived Sexism, Self-Silencing, and Psychological Distress in College Women

The current study aimed to increase knowledge related to the role of a restrictive relational strategy in the well-established link between women’s experiences of sexism and psychological distress. Utilizing self-report data, this study examined whether self-silencing mediated the relationship between perceived sexism and psychological distress in a sample of U.S. college women (n?=?143) from a large, Midwestern university. It was hypothesized that recent sexist events, lifetime sexist events, and self-silencing would predict increased psychological distress and that self-silencing would mediate the relationship between perceived sexism and distress. Higher recalled sexist events both within the past year and over a lifetime predicted increased psychological distress and self-silencing, while self-silencing predicted increased distress. Results from hierarchical multivariate regression analyses and bootstrapping supported the mediating role of self-silencing between lifetime sexist events and distress and between recent (i.e., occurring in the past year) sexist events and distress. Findings support that the adoption of a restrictive relational strategy partially explains the negative psychological consequences of perceived sexism for college women.     

Scripting sexual passivity: A gender role perspective

In two studies, we demonstrate that attitudes toward traditional sexual roles are linked with increased sexual passivity for women but decreased passivity for men. For both genders, sexual passivity predicts poor sexual functioning and satisfaction. Study 1 showed that endorsement of traditional sexual roles of male dominance and female passivity relates to greater sexual passivity among college‐aged heterosexual women but less passivity for college‐aged heterosexual men. For both young men and women, greater sexual passivity predicts less overall sexual satisfaction. The findings for Study 2 replicate Study 1 among sexually experienced adults recruited over the Internet. Autonomy mediated these relationships, which persisted when controlling for multiple potential confounds.     

Gender,Fear, and Public Places: How Negative Encounters with Strangers Harm Women

Research repeatedly shows that women are frequent targets of sexual harassment in public, ranging from catcalls to sexual assault. However, we know very little about the impacts of less obviously gendered rude behavior. Using nationally representative survey data from Australia (N = 1621), we investigated gender differences in the experience of generic public incivilities such as tailgating, pushing in crowded spaces, and yelling or cursing. We employed a series of logistic regression models to assess the relationship between gender and stranger incivility and to adjust for key demographic and event attributes. Results demonstrated that women were significantly more likely to report recent experiences of public incivility than were men and that women were significantly more likely to report negative impacts on their emotional well-being, particularly when the rude stranger was a man. Findings also showed that women were significantly more likely than were men to report limiting their use of public places as a result of experiencing public incivility. Much like sexual harassment, generic forms of uncivil behavior exact a gender-specific tax on women’s access to public places, compromising women’s capacity to fully engage in the public sphere. Implications for research and policy are discussed.     

Intersections of Feminist Identification and Hostile Sexism

This research examines the relationship between religious identification and feminist identification. Additionally, it investigates the extent of hostile sexist attitudes among those who identify as religious feminists. Utilizing 2016 American National Election Survey data, I find that religious women are no more or less likely to identify as feminist than the religiously unaffiliated, while evangelical and black Protestant men are less likely to identify as feminist. Further, both black Protestant women and Catholic men who identify as feminist express hostile sexist sentiment to a higher degree than their feminist unaffiliated counterparts, along with Latinas and Asian‐identified men. This study offers quantitative insights into the relationship between feminist identification, religious affiliation, and hostile sexist attitudes. Additional implications for this study include conceptualizations of feminism and sexism more broadly in society.     

Aspects of Homophobia in Italian High Schools: Students' Attitudes and Perceptions of School Climate

This study investigated Italian high school students' negative attitudes toward gay men and lesbians and their exposure to aspects of homophobia in their schools. Female students viewed gay men and lesbians in similar ways. Male students, on the other hand, held more negative attitudes toward gay men than toward lesbians. Participants reported widespread experiences of homophobic behaviors in their schools, especially verbal abuse. Students' perceptions of a homophobic school climate and respondent sex predicted homophobic attitudes among participants. Homophobic school climate mediated the relationship between respondent sex (male) and homophobia against gay men.