FEEDBACK IN CLASSROOM BEHAVIOR MODIFICATION: EFFECTS ON THE TARGET AND HER CLASSMATES1

A behavior modification program that employed feedback with no additional contingencies was initiated and withdrawn in an ABAB design on a target child within a classroom. The disruptive behavior of the target child as well as that of her peers was monitored. Additionally, the sociometric status of the target child was recorded. Finally, the positive and negative comments made to the target by her teacher and her peers were related to initiation and withdrawal of the feedback contingency. Results indicate that (1) feedback alone may be an effective behavior modification procedure, (2) the disruptive behavior of the target's classmates changed, even though they were not directly treated, (3) sociometric status of the target was altered by behavioral contingencies, (4) positive comments by classmates to the target increased, and (5) negative comments from the teacher to the target child decreased.     

Stability of aggressive behaviors and children's peer relationships

The present research longitudinally evaluated the association of group and dyadic peer relation factors to the stability of aggression. Beginning in grades 2 through 5, children (N = 212) completed peer nominations for aggressive behaviors, sociometric ratings, sociometric nominations (like most and like least), and friendship nominations for 2 successive years. Children were classified into four Stability of Aggression Groups: Never Aggressive, Stable Aggressive, Discontinued Aggression, Became Aggressive. Aggressive children were evaluated as more disliked at each time of testing (i.e., Stable Aggressive and Discontinued Aggression at Time 1; Stable Aggressive and Became Aggressive at Time 2). Furthermore, sociometric ratings of children at Time 1 who became aggressive by Time 2 foreshadowed this transition. Children who discontinued aggressive behaviors were friends with children who were evaluated by peers as significantly less aggressive than the friends of children who continued aggressive behaviors. These findings suggest that early identification of children at risk for developing aggressive behavior may be possible through group‐level peer evaluations, and identification of those at risk for continuing aggressive behavior may be possible through the evaluation of special dyadic friendships. Aggr. Behav. 26:277–290, 2000. © 2000 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.     

Children's verbalizations and cheating behavior during game playing: the role of sociometric status,aggression, and gender

The first goal of this study was to investigate sociometric status, aggression, and gender differences in children's verbalizations and cheating behavior during game playing using a fine-grained observational coding system. The second goal was to control for the effects of differential peer treatment and bias on children's behavior by observing children in a standardized procedure with unfamiliar peer confederates. Participants were 111 second-grade African American children, half average and half rejected sociometric status, half aggressive and half nonaggressive based on peer nominations, and half boys and half girls. Rejected children engaged in more cheating behavior and made more negative and argumentative verbalizations than average status children. Boys made more negative and argumentative verbalizations than girls. Aggressive children did not differ from nonaggressive children, in terms of either verbalizations or cheating behavior.     

Sex typing in play and popularity in middle childhood

Sex differences in play behavior across the early elementary school years as well as the relation between sex-typed play and peer acceptance were examined. It was hypothesized that children who were more sex-typed in their play behaviors would be more accepted by their peers. The participants included 86 grade two children and 81 grade four children. Popularity was assessed using a rating scale sociometric measure. Sex-typed behaviors were measured by observing the children at free play. Results indicated significant age and gender differences in children's play behavior. Specifically, boys engaged in more aggressive and rough and tumble play as well as more functional, solitary-dramatic and exploratory play and tended to be involved more in group play, whereas girls produced more parallel and constructive play as well as more peer conversations. In grade 4, these differences were maximized such that boys produced more games-with-rules and girls exhibited more parallel-constructive activity. Second, results indicated that sociometric ratings and observed degree of sex-typing were not significantly related except in the case of fourth grade males. At the fourth grade level, a positive relation was observed between boys' acceptance by male peers and “masculine” or male-preferred play behavior as well as between boys' acceptance by female peers and “feminine” or female-preferred play.     

An Examination of the Association between Social relationships and depression in early adolescence

The purpose of this study was to examine the association between social relationships and depression in early adolescence. Subjects were 216 sixth and seventh graders. Depression was measured by the Children's Depression Inventory; social relationships were measured by three sociometric techniques (positive nominations, negative nominations, peer ratings) and estimates by the subject of the number of nominations and the rating (s)he received. The results indicated that depression was associated with pear and self-estimate negative nominations and ratings more than with peer and self-estimate positive nominations. A stepwise multiple regression predicting depression scores included two of the six predictors and accounted for 14% of the variance. The implications of the results for the assessment and treatment of depression are discussed.     

Behavior problems and peer rejection in preschool boys and girls

The authors tested the hypothesis that deviant behaviors within a preschool peer group would be linked with peer rejection, irrespective of child gender. Seventy-six children, aged 3 to 5 years, participated. Teachers rated children's behavior on the Child Adaptive Behavior Inventory, and children provided sociometric ratings. For a subsample of children (n = 47), observers coded aggressive, noncompliant, and withdrawn behavior using a time-sampling system. For both boys and girls, noncompliance, hyperactivity, and social withdrawal were associated with peer rejection; overt aggression was associated with peer rejection for boys, but not for girls. Analysis revealed that approximately half of the variance in sociometric and teacher ratings of peer rejection was accounted for by aggression and social withdrawal for both boys and girls. The results suggest that the association between behavior problems and peer rejection emerges at a very early age.     

Behavioral and sociocognitive correlates of ratings of prosocial behavior and sociometric status

Although peers' and teachers' evaluations of children's prosocial behavior and peers' sociometric ratings frequently have been used in studies of social development, the validity of young children's ratings of others has been questioned, as has that for teachers' ratings of prosocial behavior. In this study, preschoolers' ratings of peers' sociometric status and prosocial behavior, as well as teachers' ratings of children's prosocial dispositions, were obtained. These were correlated with children's naturally occurring prosocial or social behavior; ratings of prosocial behavior also were correlated with children's prosocial moral reasoning and prosocial self-attributions. Peers' sociometric ratings were positively related to children's sociability whereas prosocial ratings were related to helping (but not sharing) behavior. Teachers' ratings of prosocial behavior were not related to frequency of prosocial behaviors, but were positively related to developmentally mature moral judgments and self-reported motives.     

Behavior Problems and Peer Rejection in Preschool Boys and Girls

The authors tested the hypothesis that deviant behaviors within a preschool peer group would be linked with peer rejection, irrespective of child gender. Seventy-six children, aged 3 to 5 years, participated. Teachers rated children's behavior on the Child Adaptive Behavior Inventory, and children provided sociometric ratings. For a subsample of children (n = 47), observers coded aggressive, noncompliant, and withdrawn behavior using a time-sampling system. For both boys and girls, noncompliance, hyperactivity, and social withdrawal were associated with peer rejection; overt aggression was associated with peer rejection for boys, but not for girls. Analysis revealed that approximately half of the variance in sociometric and teacher ratings of peer rejection was accounted for by aggression and social withdrawal for both boys and girls. The results suggest that the association between behavior problems and peer rejection emerges at a very early age.     

An experimental study of crowding: effects of room size, intrusion, and goal blocking on nonverbal behavior, self-disclosure, and self-reported stress.

This study hypothesized that stress in high room density, or crowding, depends on interpersonal disturbances such as intrusion and goal blocking. High room density was expected to intensify individual reactions to these disturbances. In a 2 X 2 X 2 design, groups of six male college students containing three subjects and three confederates were placed in a large or small room. Subjects and confederates interacted in pairs; confederates introduced intrusion by leaning forward, touching subjects, and attempting 80% eye contact as confederates talked. Goal blocking involved inattention and interruptions as subjects talked. Interactions were videotaped through two-way mirrors to record nonverbal behaviors associated with affiliation and stress. Subjects also completed self-report measures of stress and self-disclosure. Intrusion led to initial discomfort that decreased with time, and lower levels of facial regard. Goal blocking produced self-reported irritation that increased with time, and lower levels of facial regard, gesturing, and positive head nodding. Contrary to predictions, stress responses to intrusion and goal blocking were not intensified by high room density. Lower levels of affiliative behavior were viewed as coping responses to interpersonal disturbances--subjects apparently coped successfully with intrusion, but not with goal blocking. Results are interpreted in terms of a sequential, interpersonal model of crowding.     

Interpersonal distance and impression formation

Impression formation was examined as a function of interpersonal physical distance in an interview. It was predicted that a confederate would be rated less socially active as the distance between him and the subject increased. The hypothesis was supported by a significant negative linear trend in the composite ratings of friendliness, aggressiveness, extraversion, and dominance A variation in this trend, indicating that confederates seated closest to the subject were seen as less socially active, was explained in terms of compensatory behaviors minimizing the effect of close physical proximity     

Complementarity of interpersonal behaviors in dyadic interactions

An important assumption of interpersonal theory is that during social interactions the behavior of one person tends to invite complementary behavior from the other person. Past research examining complementarity has usually used either confederates or fictitious interaction partners in their designs and has produced inconsistent results. The current study used observational ratings of behaviors of 158 participants as they interacted with partners across three different dyadic social situations. Randomization tests of hypothesized order relations found that the behaviors exhibited during these interactions tended to occur in a circular pattern predicted by the interpersonal circumplex. These tests also indicated support for Leary's (1957) orientation of the control and affiliation dimensions of the interpersonal circumplex and Carson's (1969) notion that dominant behavior induces submissive responses and friendly behavior encourages friendly responses.     

Behavior Disordered Children's Social Skills:

Four behaviorally disordered boys from an elementary school special education classroom received social skills training. They were selected on the basis of high negative nominations on the Class Pay sociometric measure. Training was designed to increase the rate at which the boys emitted prosocial behaviors toward their peers. Verbal instructions, modeling, role-play, and feedback were used to coach positive social behaviors in eight individual sessions with each boy. In a multiple baseline design across subjects, each of the target children showed an increase in positive behavior concurrent with training. A decrease in the occurrence of positive behavior followed termination of training, however, resulting in a final level of positive behavior intermediate between baseline and training levels. The expected increases in positive responses by peers did not occur, and the measure of sociometric status was not consistently sensitive to the observed behavioral change. Unique problems of social skills training in the special education classroom are discussed.     

Relations between hyperactive and aggressive behavior and peer relations at three elementary grade levels

Sociometrics and teacher ratings of hyperactivity and aggression were obtained on 390 boys in grades 1– 6 to explore the relative contributions of hyperactivity and aggression to children's social adjustment. Both hyperactivity and aggression were correlated with negative sociometric nominations at all grade levels; however, only hyperactivity showed consistent inverse correlations with positive sociometric nominations. In multiple regression analyses, hyperactivity contributed incremental variance to the prediction of problematic sociometric status at all grade levels, while aggression did so only at grades 3– 4. An examination of the core symptoms of hyperactivity revealed that motor hyperactivity, in the absence of impulsivity and inattention, did not predict negative sociometric status at any grade level. Subgroups of boys categorized as hyperactive only, aggressive only, hyperactive/aggressive, and nonhyperactive/nonaggressive controls were compared on teacher ratings and sociometrics. Hyperactive/aggressive boys had higher hyperactivity and aggression ratings than boys in either of the single- problem groups; all three behavior problem groups had more negative social status than controls. Developmental changes in children's normative expectations for social behavior were discussed as possible mechanisms mediating the age- related differences in relations among aggression, hyperactivity, and peer relations.This research is based on a dissertation submitted by the first author in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the Ph.D. degree in clinical psychology at The Pennsylvania State University. The investigation was supported in part by an NIMH postdoctoral training grant No. MH-15151 made to the first author during a fellowship in the Division of Behavioral Pediatrics of Albert Einstein College of Medicine, and a Faculty Scholars in Mental Health of Children award made by The William T. Grant Foundation to the second author.Appreciation is expressed to the fellowing individuals for their assistance in data collecting and scoring: Rosanna D'Alession, John D'Orazio, Chris Doran, Linda Goldstein, Joel Kasper, Lisa Kovacs, Heidi Linz, Kathryn McPherson, Grant Miller, Sue Skalaban, Helene Streitfield. The additional organizational and administrative assistance of Linda Goldstein and Kathryn McPherson is gratefully acknowledged. Finally, we are especially thankful for the cooperation and support of the faculty and students at Linntown Elementary School in the Lewisburg Area School District, the Bellwood-Antis Elementary Schools in the Bellwood-Antis School District, and Lincoln Elementary School in the Tyrone Area School District.     

Nonverbal Mediators of Expectancy Effects in Black and White Children1

Seventy-two white undergraduates of both sexes taught a lesson “What is psychology?” to a 10-year-old male confederate. Four confederates, two white and two black, alternated in the three conditions of induced expectancy: Subjects were told the child was bright, dull, or were given no information. Unknown to subjects, their nonverbal behavior during the lesson was videotape recorded. Results indicated that induced expectancy affected subject nonverbal behavior only when the confederate was white. Subjects smiled more, looked more, and nodded more at the white “bright” confederates than the white control or “dull” confederates. However, expectancy had no effect, positive or negative, when the confederate was black. In addition, white confederates received more positive nonverbal behavior overall than did black confederates.     

Moderating Effects of Mothers' Attribution on the Relationships Between Their Affect and Parenting Behaviors and Children's Aggressive Behaviors

We examined Bugental's (1987) transactional model in the context of the relationships between aggressive children and their mothers. Based on Bugental's model, it was hypothesized that mothers who possessed the attributional style of low self-control and high child-control over hypothetical child care failure were more likely to manifest negative affect and negative parenting behaviors toward their child, only when their child is aggressive. Children's aggressive behavior was assessed via mothers' and teachers' ratings. Sixty-six children and their mothers served as subjects. Our results provided support for mothers' negative affect when using teachers' rating of children's aggressive behaviors only. Possible explanations for the differential results obtained using mothers' and teachers' ratings of children's aggressive behaviors were discussed.     

SOCIAL SKILLS TRAINING WITH CHILDREN: PROCEED WITH CAUTION

Three learning disabled children, selected on the basis of peer sociometric ratings and teacher referral, received social skills training. A group training procedure consisting of coaching, modeling, behavior rehearsal, and feedback was used to teach children the target behaviors of eye contact and appropriate verbal responses. A multiple baseline analysis across target behaviors was used to demonstrate treatment effectiveness on role-play scenes trained during treatment sessions. Duration of speech was measured as an untrained, corollary measure. The following measures were also obtained during baseline, posttreatment, and 1-mo follow-up for the experimental subjects and three control subjects: (a) performance on role-play scenes not trained during treatment sessions; (b) behavioral observations in a free play setting, and (c) sociometric ratings. In addition, the trained and untrained role-play scenes were administered by novel experimenters following treatment. The results indicated that socially unskilled, learning disabled children can be taught to respond appropriately to role-play situations. However, improved performance did not generalize to the natural school setting and treatment did not effect ratings of peer acceptance. The implications of these findings for future social skills training with children are discussed.     

Peer and teacher ratings of socially neglected and rejected fourth- and fifth-grade boys

Positive and negative sociometric nomination measures were administered to 86 fourth- and fifth-grade boys. Using a combination of these measures, popular (high positive; low negative), neglected (low positive, low negative), and rejected (low positive, high negative) children were identified and peer and teacher ratings of these children were obtained. Rejected children were seen by both peers and teachers as exhibiting more undesirable behaviors than either neglected or popular children. These findings coupled with those from several longitudinal investigations demonstrating that rejected children are at risk for the development of psychopathology during adolescence and adulthood, clearly points toward the importance of developing effective interventions for these children.     

Peer Ratings of Children's Assertive and Unassertive Behavior:

The purpose of this investigation was to explore children's judgements of peers' assertive and unassertive behavior in positive and negative interactions. Subjects were 142 third and fourth graders, 8 to 11 years of age. Stimulus materials were sets of three short videotaped scenes in which a female target child behaved either assertively or unassertively with a female peer. Four types of scenes were utilized: positive situations and assertive behavior (PA), positive situations and unassertive behavior(PU), negative situations and assertive behavior (NA), and negative situations and unassertive behavior (NU). Groups of 8 to 10 male and female subjects each viewed one set of scenes and then completed a 10-item questionnaire assessing their judgements of the target children's social skillfulness and likability. Results indicate that subjects rated assertive behavior in positive situations significantly higher than in negative situations for the majority of the items. Also, ratings for the PA and NU scenes and for the NA and PU scenes generally did not differ significantly. No significantly main effect of target child or gender of subject was demonstrated although some trends were noted. These findings strongly suggest that children's judgments of peers' assertive and unassertive behavior are situationally specific. Results of the present study have important implications for children's social skills training.     

Preschool teachers' ratings of behavioral problems: Observational,sociometric, and social-cognitive correlates

Behar and Stringfield (1974) have suggested that the Preschool Behavior Questionnaire (PBQ) is a reliable index of young children's social competence. However, there are few extant data in which teacher ratings of children on the PBQ have been correlated with independent assessments of social competence. In this study PBQ ratings of 123 preschoolers were correlated with observations of in-class social and cognitive play behaviors, sociometric status, and social problem-solving skills. Analyses indicated that children rated highly on the PBQ's Anxious-Fearful, Hostile-Aggressive, and Hyperactive-Distractible factors (a) displayed less mature and more aggressive in-class behaviors, (b) were less popular among their peers, and (c) were more likely to suggest negative affect strategies on the social problem-solving measure. Thus, the PBQ appears to be a useful instrument for identifying children with social problems.     

Interpersonal Reactions to Depression and Physical Disablllty In Dyadic Interactions1

Examined the interpersonal responses of persons engaged in dyadic interactions with confederates who enacted either depressed or socially appropriate roles and appeared either with or without a physical disability. Subject negative evaluations of confederates were indirectly obtained from a thought-listing measure. The overt behaviors of subjects were surreptitiously recorded on videotape and measures of verbal and nonverbal behavior were acquired. Subjects spoke less to the depressed targets and had significantly higher rates of negative evaluations of these persons. In addition, subjects gazed less at the depressed confederates. These effects were not moderated by target physical appearance. Findings are discussed as they relate to social models of depression and the stigmatizing effects of disability.