Elimination of the enhanced Simon effect for older adults in a three-choice situation: Ageing and the Simon effect in a go/no-go Simon task

In a Simon task, participants show better performance when the irrelevant stimulus location corresponds with the response location than when it does not, and this effect is typically greater for older adults than for younger adults. To study the effect of cognitive ageing in the Simon task, we compared young and old adults using two versions of the Simon task: (a) a standard visual Simon task, for which participants respond with left and right key-presses to the red and green colours of stimuli presented in left and right locations; (b) a go/no-go version of the Simon task, which was basically the same, except that the shape of the stimulus in one third of the trials indicates that no response is to be made. In both tasks, both age groups showed the Simon effect. The magnitude of the effect for the standard Simon task was greater for the older adults than for the younger adults. Nevertheless, the two groups showed an equivalent Simon effect in the go/no-go version of the Simon task. Reaction time distribution analyses revealed basically similar functions for both age groups: a decreasing pattern of the Simon effect in the standard task and an increasing pattern of the effect in the go/no-go version of the task. The results suggest that older adults find it more difficult to suppress an automatic activation of the corresponding response, though this automatic activation was reduced in situations where the response was frequently inhibited.     

Flexible adjustments of visual selectivity in a Flanker task

Congruency effects observed in stimulus-response compatibility paradigms are affected by proportion congruency (PC), that is, the ratio of congruent trials in a block-wise context. The PC effect may reflect the operation of visual selectivity. We used a flanker task to investigate the nature of the relationship between the congruency effect and PC in a given block, as well as the preservation of visual selectivity. In Experiment 1, we observed a linear relationship between the congruency effect and PC across five PC groups in a training session; in post training (with PC constant), the congruency effect was equivalent across the five groups. In Experiment 2, congruency effects varied with PC in phases within a block. These suggest that visual selectivity, acquired in a training session, is not sustained in post training where it rapidly adjusts to a new PC context. Characteristics of visual selectivity derived from these findings are discussed.     

Impaired inhibition of prepotent motor tendencies in Friedreich ataxia demonstrated by the Simon interference task

Friedreich ataxia (FRDA) is the most common of the genetically inherited ataxias. We recently demonstrated that people with FRDA have impairment in motor planning - most likely because of pathology affecting the cerebral cortex and/or cerebello-cortical projections. We used the Simon interference task to examine how effective 13 individuals with FRDA were at inhibiting inappropriate automatic responses associated with stimulus-response incompatibility in comparison with control participants. Participants had to respond to arrow targets according to two features which were either congruent or incongruent. We found that individuals with FRDA were differentially affected in reaction time to incongruent, compared with congruent stimuli, when compared with control participants. There was a significant negative correlation between age of onset and the incongruency effect, suggesting an impact of FRDA on the developmental unfolding of motor cognition, independent of the effect of disease duration. Future neuroimaging studies will be required to establish whether this dysfunction is due to cerebellar impairment disrupting cerebro-ponto-cerebello-thalamo-cerebral loops (and thus cortical function), direct primary cortical pathology, or a possible combination of the two.     

Activation and binding in verbal working memory: a dual-process model for the recognition of nonwords

The article presents a mathematical model of short-term recognition based on dual-process models and the three-component theory of working memory [Oberauer, K. (2002). Access to information in working memory: Exploring the focus of attention. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 28, 411-421]. Familiarity arises from activated representations in long-term memory, ignoring their relations; recollection retrieves bindings in the capacity-limited component of working memory. In three experiments participants encoded two short lists of nonwords for immediate recognition, one of which was then cued as irrelevant. Probes from the irrelevant list were rejected more slowly than new probes; this was also found with probes recombining letters of irrelevant nonwords, suggesting that familiarity arises from individual letters independent of their relations. When asked to accept probes whose letters were all in the relevant list, regardless of their conjunction, participants accepted probes preserving the original conjunctions faster than recombinations, showing that recollection accessed feature bindings automatically. The model fit the data best when familiarity depended only on matching letters, whereas recollection used binding information.     

西蒙效应研究新进展

该文主要从三个方面回顾了西蒙效应的研究：双线路模型,信息门控御制理论以及最新的从捆绑的角度对西蒙效应所做的事件文件构想的解释。在对各个理论的优势和不足做了简要的评价后,启示和思考的部分提出了改善实验的概括性方案,同时对理论的扩展提出了相应的建议。     

Suppression of irrelevant activation in the horizontal and vertical Simon task differs quantitatively not qualitatively

The Simon effect is usually explained by the assumption that the irrelevant stimulus location automatically activates the corresponding response. In the case of incongruent stimulus–response assignments automatically activated responses therefore have to be suppressed to ensure correct responses. This account, however, has been called into question for other than horizontally arranged visual Simon tasks. We investigated whether there is a qualitative or quantitative difference in suppression of irrelevant activation between horizontally and vertically arranged Simon tasks, using delta-function analyses. Sequential analyses revealed suppression after incongruent trials in both tasks, supporting the idea of a quantitative rather than a qualitative difference between the tasks. We conclude that automatic response activation is weaker in vertical tasks resulting in lower inhibitory demands as compared to horizontal tasks.     

A dual-process model of affective and instrumental attitudes in predicting physical activity

IntroductionA novel dual-process model based upon the affective-reflective theory which distinguishes between affective attitude and instrumental attitude at an explicit and implicit level was used to predict physical activity.MethodUndergraduate students (N = 114) completed a lab-based study at two time-points, spaced two weeks apart. Participants completed self-report measures of the theory of planned behavior constructs, including explicit affective attitude and explicit instrumental attitude. Implicit affective attitude and implicit instrumental attitude were measured using single category implicit association tests.ResultsExplicit affective attitude and perceived behavioral control indirectly predicted physical activity through intention, and explicit affective attitude, implicit affective attitude, and intention predicted physical activity directly with a modest effect size (R² = 0.24).DiscussionFindings suggest explicitly and implicitly held evaluative information are conceptually distinct, and affective evaluations are key in guiding physical activity behavior regardless of whether such evaluations are implicit or consciously accessible.     

The differences between cerebral dominance patterns in the speed and accuracy of information processing among university students

IntroductionThe subject of cerebral dominance has received great attention by researchers; however, there is a paucity of studies that have examined its relationship to information processing.ObjectiveThe current study aims to reveal the differences between the cerebral dominance patterns (left cerebral dominance, right cerebral dominance, integrated parallel cerebral dominance) in the speed and accuracy of information processing.MethodA sample of (182) volunteers university students, (mean age ± SD, 19.92 ± 2.76 years; range, 18–24 years; 68 male, 114 females). The Human Information processing survey was applied to the participants. Each subject was exposed to two elementary cognitive tasks (Stroop task and Eriksen flanker task). Each task included two experimental conditions: first, the congruent condition that reflects the automatic processing of information; second, the incongruent condition that reflects the controlled processing of information.ResultsThe results of the study revealed that there were no differences between the patterns of cerebral dominance in the speed and accuracy of information processing.ConclusionAlthough the relationship between cerebral dominance and information processing is not significant, we need more studies to examine this relationship in other samples and in other experimental conditions.     

Action co-representation and the sense of agency during a joint Simon task: Comparing human and machine co-agents

Recent studies have suggested that individuals are not able to develop a sense of joint agency during joint actions with artificial systems. We sought to examine whether this lack of joint agency is linked to individuals’ inability to co-represent the machine-generated actions. Fifteen participants observed or performed a Simon response time task either individually, or jointly with another human or a computer. Participants reported the time interval between their response (or the co-actor response) and a subsequent auditory stimulus, which served as an implicit measure of participants’ sense of agency. Participants’ reaction times showed a classical Simon effect when they were partnered with another human, but not when they collaborated with a computer. Furthermore, participants showed a vicarious sense of agency when co-acting with another human agent but not with a computer. This absence of vicarious sense of agency during human-computer interactions and the relation with action co-representation are discussed.     

Neural activation underlying cognitive control in the context of neutral and affectively charged pictures in children

The neural correlates of cognitive control for typically developing 9-year-old children were examined using dense-array ERPs and estimates of cortical activation (LORETA) during a go/no-go task with two conditions: a neutral picture condition and an affectively charged picture condition. Activation was estimated for the entire cortex after which data were exported for four regions of interests (ROIs): ventrolateral prefrontal cortex (VLPFC), dorsal anterior cingulate cortex (dACC), dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (DLPFC), and orbitofrontal/ventromedial prefrontal cortex (OFC/VMPFC). Results revealed faster reaction times, greater N2 activation, and greater prefrontal activation for the affectively charged picture condition than the neutral picture condition. The findings are discussed in reference to the impact of affective stimuli on recruitment of specific brain regions involved in cognitive control.     

Conflict tasks and the diffusion framework: Insight in model constraints based on psychological laws

Formal models of decision-making have traditionally focused on simple, two-choice perceptual decisions. To date, one of the most influential account of this process is Ratcliff’s drift diffusion model (DDM). However, the extension of the model to more complex decisions is not straightforward. In particular, conflicting situations, such as the Eriksen, Stroop, or Simon tasks, require control mechanisms that shield the cognitive system against distracting information. We adopted a novel strategy to constrain response time (RT) models by concurrently investigating two well-known empirical laws in conflict tasks, both at experimental and modeling levels. The two laws, predicted by the DDM, describe the relationship between mean RT and (i) target intensity (Piéron’s law), (ii) standard deviation of RT (Wagenmakers–Brown’s law). Pioneering work has shown that Piéron’s law holds in the Stroop task, and has highlighted an additive relationship between target intensity and compatibility. We found similar results in both Eriksen and Simon tasks. Compatibility also violated Wagenmakers–Brown’s law in a very similar and particular fashion in the two tasks, suggesting a common model framework. To investigate the nature of this commonality, predictions of two recent extensions of the DDM that incorporate selective attention mechanisms were simulated and compared to the experimental results. Both models predict Piéron’s law and the violation of Wagenmakers–Brown’s law by compatibility. Fits of the models to the RT distributions and accuracy data allowed us to further reveal their relative strengths and deficiencies. Combining experimental and computational results, this study sets the groundwork for a unified model of decision-making in conflicting environments.     

Investigating the relationship of working memory tasks and fluid intelligence tests by means of the fixed-links model in considering the impurity problem

The impurity of measures is considered as cause of erroneous interpretations of observed relationships. This paper concentrates on impurity with respect to the relationship between working memory and fluid intelligence. The means for the identification of impurity was the fixed-links model, which enabled the decomposition of variance into experimental and non-experimental parts. A substantial non-experimental part could be expected to signify impurity. In a sample of 345 participants error scores and reaction times, which were obtained by the Exchange Test, represented working memory, and Advanced Progressive Matrices served as measure of fluid intelligence. The four independent latent variables of the model associated with error scores and reaction times led to a multiple correlation .67 with the latent variable of fluid intelligence. However, there was impurity since the decomposition by means of the fixed-links model showed that only 45% of the common variance was due to working memory.     

Identification and location tasks rely on different mental processes: a diffusion model account of validity effects in spatial cueing paradigms with emotional stimuli

Spatial cueing paradigms are popular tools to assess human attention to emotional stimuli, but different variants of these paradigms differ in what participants’ primary task is. In one variant, participants indicate the location of the target (location task), whereas in the other they indicate the shape of the target (identification task). In the present paper we test the idea that although these two variants produce seemingly comparable cue validity effects on response times, they rest on different underlying processes. Across four studies (total N?=?397; two in the supplement) using both variants and manipulating the motivational relevance of cue content, diffusion model analyses revealed that cue validity effects in location tasks are primarily driven by response biases, whereas the same effect rests on delay due to attention to the cue in identification tasks. Based on this, we predict and empirically support that a symmetrical distribution of valid and invalid cues would reduce cue validity effects in location tasks to a greater extent than in identification tasks. Across all variants of the task, we fail to replicate the effect of greater cue validity effects for arousing (vs. neutral) stimuli. We discuss the implications of these findings for best practice in spatial cueing research.     

Placing inspection time, reaction time, and perceptual speed in the broader context of cognitive ability: The VPR model in the Lothian Birth Cohort 1936

The idea that information processing speed is related to cognitive ability has a long history. Much evidence has been amassed in its support, with respect to both individual differences in general intelligence and developmental trajectories. Two so-called elementary cognitive tasks, reaction time and inspection time, have been used to compile this evidence, but most studies have used either one or the other. Relations between speed and fluid intelligence have tended to be stronger than those between speed and crystallized intelligence, but studies testing this have confounded verbal abilities with crystallized intelligence and spatial/perceptual abilities with fluid intelligence. Questions have also been raised regarding whether speed contributes directly to general intelligence or to more specific cognitive abilities to which general intelligence also contributes. We used 18 ability and speed measures in the Lothian Birth Cohort 1936, assessed at approximately age 70, to construct alternative versions of the Verbal-Perceptual-Image Rotation (Johnson & Bouchard, 2005a) model of cognitive ability to test different hypotheses regarding these issues. Though differences in the extents to which our models fit the data were relatively small, they suggested that reaction and inspection time tasks were comparable indicators of information processing speed with respect to general intelligence, that verbal and spatial abilities were similarly related to information processing speed, and that spatial, verbal, and perceptual speed abilities were more directly related to information processing speed than was general intelligence. We discuss the theoretical implications of these results.     

The study of early emotion processing in the frontal area using a two-dipole source model

The present study explored early emotion processing in the frontal area using the two-dipole source model. The 21-channel recordings of event-related potentials (ERPs) produced by a pure tone were analyzed in order to assess information processing. In the test conditions, the pure tone followed the presentation of one of two unpleasant sounds to enhance anxiety. In the control condition, only the pure tone was presented. There were two groups of eight subjects, one with low scores for trait anxiety and one with high scores. The ERPs were separately averaged for the groups, as well as for the high- and low-anxiety sound and control session. A negative peak around 120 ms (C2) and a positive peak around 280 ms (C5) after stimulus onset were identified in all the sessions. The two-dipole source model was applied to these two components. In the C2 component, dipole sources were located in the left frontal area in the control sessions, and in the right frontal area in the high-anxiety sessions. This activation pattern was clearer in the group with low trait anxiety. In contrast, with the C5 component, lateralization of the dipole source in the frontal area was not seen. These findings suggest that the frontal area is involved in early emotion processing. A dual-stage model of emotion processing is therefore proposed.     

RACE/A: an architectural account of the interactions between learning, task control, and retrieval dynamics

This article discusses how sequential sampling models can be integrated in a cognitive architecture. The new theory Retrieval by Accumulating Evidence in an Architecture (RACE/A) combines the level of detail typically provided by sequential sampling models with the level of task complexity typically provided by cognitive architectures. We will use RACE/A to model data from two variants of a picture-word interference task in a psychological refractory period design. These models will demonstrate how RACE/A enables interactions between sequential sampling and long-term declarative learning, and between sequential sampling and task control. In a traditional sequential sampling model, the onset of the process within the task is unclear, as is the number of sampling processes. RACE/A provides a theoretical basis for estimating the onset of sequential sampling processes during task execution and allows for easy modeling of multiple sequential sampling processes within a task.     

Problem decomposability as a factor in complexity of the dimensional change card sort task

According to cognitive complexity and control (CCC) theory complexity depends on number of levels of a hierarchy of rules. According to relational complexity (RC) theory complexity is a function of the number of related variables in the task, and the most difficult tasks are those in which there is a constraint on decomposition into simpler subtasks. One hundred and twenty, 3–6-year old children were tested on the standard dimensional change card sort (DCCS) task, or a modified version, the DecompDCCS, in which the dimensions could be decomposed into subtasks. The standard version requires two levels of a hierarchy to be processed, and is ternary relational according to RC theory, whereas the subtasks of the DecompDCCS are binary relational. The DecompDCCS was easier than the DCCS for 3–4 year-olds, but all 5–6 year-olds succeeded on both. The results indicate that decomposability into simpler subtasks, as suggested by RC theory, is a factor in difficulty of DCCS. The role of decomposability in other tasks that are persistently difficult for young children is discussed.     

Posttraumatic stress disorder in the emergency room: exploration of a cognitive model

Ehlers and Clark (Behav. Res. Ther., 38 (2000) 319) recently proposed a cognitive model of posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD). In this study, we examined two facets of this model, appraisal and peritraumatic dissociation, in the context of a hospital emergency room. Fifty-one emergency room personnel completed questionnaires measuring posttraumatic stress symptoms, interpretations of traumatic events experienced while working in the emergency room and subsequent intrusive recollections, and peritraumatic dissociation. Twelve percent of participants met formal diagnostic criteria for PTSD, and 20% met PTSD symptom criteria. As predicted, both negative appraisals of the trauma and of intrusive recollections were associated with increased PTSD severity. Although peritraumatic dissociation did not correlate with overall PTSD symptom severity, it was associated with the reexperiencing symptom cluster. Discussion focuses on the factors associated with PTSD in emergency room professionals and implications for intervention.     

The validity of the three-component model of organizational commitment in a Chinese context

This study examined the construct validity of Meyer and Allen’s (1991) three-component model of organizational commitment in a Chinese context and compared levels of OC between the Chinese sample and previously published data from Canada and South Korea. In a study of 226 Chinese employees in six foreign-invested companies, a five-factor oblique model, which included both substantive and method factors, fit the data best. However, the three-component model had a reasonably good fit. The proposed antecedents of each of the three principal OC dimensions tended to associate most strongly with their respective scales. Affective commitment and normative commitment significantly predicted job satisfaction and all three components predicted turnover intention, although associations between continuance commitment and these outcomes were moderated by normative commitment. Finally, we found that normative and affective commitment were significantly higher in the Chinese sample than in previously published samples from Canada and South Korea. Continuance commitment in the Chinese sample was lower than the Canadian and Korean samples. Implications of these findings are discussed in more detail.     

The role of action effects in 12-month-olds' action control: a comparison of televised model and live model

The present study investigated differences in infant imitation after watching a televised model and a live model and addressed the issue of whether action effects influence infants’ action control in both cases. In a 2 × 2 design, 12-month-old infants observed a live or a televised model performing a three-step action sequence, in which either the 2nd or the 3rd action step was combined with an acoustical action effect. We assumed that infants would use the observed action-effect relations for their own action control in the test phase afterwards. Even though results exhibited differences in the absolute amount of imitation between the two demonstration groups, both groups showed similar result patterns regarding the action effect manipulation: infants imitated the action step that was followed by a salient action effect more often and mostly as the first target action, emphasizing the important role of action effects in infants’ action control.