Anxiety Symptoms in African American Children: Relations with Ethnic Pride,Anxiety Sensitivity,and Parenting

This cross-sectional study examined the relations among children’s ethnic pride, perceived parenting behavior (i.e., parental control, parental acceptance), anxiety sensitivity, and child anxiety symptoms (i.e., physical symptoms, social anxiety symptoms, separation anxiety symptoms, and harm avoidance symptoms) in 266 African American school children (M = 9.98 years old; 55% girls). Structural equation modeling results indicated that high ethnic pride was associated with high parental acceptance. High perceived parental acceptance, in turn, was related to children reporting low levels of social anxiety symptoms and high levels of harm avoidance. In addition, high parental control was related to high anxiety sensitivity. Anxiety sensitivity partially mediated the relation between parental control and separation anxiety symptoms, such that parental control was both directly and indirectly related to separation anxiety symptoms. Parental control was indirectly related to physical symptoms, social anxiety symptoms, and harm avoidance symptoms through its direct link to anxiety sensitivity. The study’s results increment knowledge about factors influencing specific dimensions of anxiety in African American children.     

父母心理控制与儿童自我控制和问题行为:有中介的调节模型

选取343名儿童及其家长为被试考察父母心理控制对儿童问题行为的影响及其机制。结果:(1)心理控制正向预测儿童的内外化问题行为且这种影响受父母自主支持的调节;(2)父母自主支持的调节作用部分通过情绪控制影响儿童内外化问题行为,部分通过抑制控制影响儿童外化问题行为。结论:心理控制对儿童问题行为的影响受自主支持的调节,儿童自我控制能力在其中起部分中介作用。     

Associations Between Fathers’ and Mothers’ Psychopathology Symptoms,Parental Emotion Socialization,and Preschoolers’ Social-Emotional Development

In this study we tested whether the relation between fathers’ and mothers’ psychopathology symptoms and child social-emotional development was mediated by parents’ use of emotion talk about negative emotions in a sample of 241 two-parent families. Parents’ internalizing and externalizing problems were measured with the Adult Self Report and parental emotion talk was observed while they discussed a picture book with their children (child age: 3 years). Children’s parent-reported internalizing and externalizing problems and observed prosocial behaviors were assessed at the age of 3 years and again 12 months later. We found that mothers’ use of emotion talk partially mediated the positive association between fathers’ internalizing problems and child internalizing problems. Fathers’ internalizing problems predicted more elaborative mother–child discussions about negative emotions, which in turn predicted more internalizing problems in children a year later. Mothers’ externalizing problems directly predicted more internalizing and externalizing problems in children. These findings emphasize the importance of examining the consequences of parental psychological difficulties for child development from a family-wide perspective.     

Exploring the relationships between maternal and child metacognitions and child anxiety

Research has shown that anxiety may be transmitted through verbal information pathways, for example, when parents share their anxious cognitions with their child. Less is known about the influence of parental metacognitions, that is, beliefs regarding thoughts, on child anxiety. We explored the relations between metacognitions in mothers and their children and anxiety in the children. Our study included 111 non‐clinical children aged 8 to 12 years and their mothers. Children rated their metacognitions, worry and anxiety, and mothers rated their metacognitions. Results indicated agreement between maternal and child metacognitions. Maternal metacognitions were positively associated with children's anxiety symptoms and worry, and this relation was mediated by the children's metacognitions. Our results warrant further examination of the role of parental metacognitions in child anxiety.     

The prospective relationship between child personality and perceived parenting: Mediation by parental sense of competence

This study examined the prospective relationship between childhood Big Five personality characteristics and perceived parenting in adolescence. In addition, we investigated whether this relationship was mediated by parental sense of competence, and whether associations were different for mothers and fathers. For 274 children, teachers reported on children’s Big Five personality characteristics at Time 1, mothers and fathers reported on their sense of competence at Time 2, and the children (who had now become adolescents) rated their parents’ warmth, overreactivity and psychological control at Time 3. Mediation analysis revealed both direct and indirect effects. No differences in associations were found for perceived parenting of mothers and fathers. This study demonstrates that child personality in late childhood is significantly related to perceived parental warmth, overreactivity and psychological control in adolescence. In addition, parental sense of competence mediates the relationship between child conscientiousness and perceived parental warmth, overreactivity and psychological control.     

Family Cohesion and Health-Related Quality of Life of Children with Type 1 Diabetes: The Mediating Role of Parental Adjustment

Despite the increasing number of studies on the health-related quality of life (HRQOL) of children with type 1 diabetes (T1D), little is known about the influence of family and parental factors on this outcome. This study aimed to explore whether family cohesion and children’s HRQOL were connected through three indicators of parental psychological adjustment (parenting stress, depressive symptoms, and anxious symptoms) as well as whether these links varied according to the child’s age. Levels of family cohesion, parenting stress, and depression/anxiety symptoms of parents of children with T1D and parents of healthy children were compared. The sample included 88 child–parent dyads composed of children/adolescents (8–18 years old) with T1D and one of their parents and 121 dyads composed of healthy children/adolescents and one of their parents. The parents completed self-report measures of family cohesion, parenting stress, and emotional adjustment, and the children completed measures of HRQOL. Testing of the hypothesized moderated mediational model showed that higher HRQOL ratings in children were associated with higher levels of cohesion through lower levels of parental stress, regardless of the child’s age. Parents of children with T1D perceived less cohesion and felt more anxiety and stress about parenting tasks compared to parents of healthy children. Our findings suggest that parents of children with T1D are at an increased risk of psychological maladjustment. Moreover, this study highlights the interrelation between family/parental functioning and child adjustment and makes an innovative contribution by identifying a mechanism that may account for the link between family and child variables.     

Perceived Parental Anxiety and Depressive Problems and Emerging Adult Oppositional Defiant Problems: Moderated Mediation by Psychological and Physical Maltreatment and Gender

Recent studies have argued that Oppositional Defiant Disorder (ODD) problems continue into emerging adulthood; however, few studies have examined ODD problems in this population. Moreover, previous studies have found that corporal punishment mediated the relationship between maternal anxiety/depression and child ODD problems in young children and that parental psychopathology is likely to affect child ODD. This study examined how maternal as well as paternal maltreatment (i.e., psychological and physical) mediated the relationship between parental anxiety/depressive problems and emerging adult ODD problems (i.e., irritability and defiance). Furthermore, child and parent gender were examined as moderators (i.e., moderated mediation). Participants included 1,012 emerging adults who completed questionnaires about parental psychological and physical maltreatment, parental anxiety and depression, and affective and behavioral ODD symptoms. Results suggested that mediation occurred for the father–daughter dyad along the perceived paternal depressive problems → psychological and physical maltreatment → irritability paths and for the mother–son dyad along the perceived maternal depressive and anxiety problems → psychological maltreatment → defiance paths. Given that mediation occurred for only these gender dyads, moderated mediation was suggested.     

Achievement-oriented and dependency-oriented parental psychological control: An examination of specificity to middle childhood achievement and dependency-related problems

Middle childhood is considered a sensitive phase for the development of both dependency and achievement-related problems. In order to target efficient prevention and treatment, it is necessary to identify unique associations with possible precursors. This study hypothesized that children’s dependency-related problems (i.e., separation anxiety and generalized anxiety) would uniquely relate to parental dependency-oriented psychological control and that children’s achievement-related problems (i.e., extrinsic motivation and maladaptive perfectionism) would uniquely relate to parental achievement-oriented psychological control. The study included 180 elementary school children. Results showed that higher levels of children’s separation anxiety uniquely related to more parental dependency-oriented psychological control, while higher levels of children’s extrinsic motivation uniquely related to more parental achievement-oriented psychological control. Contrary to the expectations, higher levels of children’s maladaptive perfectionism were associated with both dimensions of parental psychological control, and children’s generalized anxiety was not associated with any dimension. Study implications are discussed.     

Depressive Symptoms among Children with ODD: Contributions of Parent and Child Risk Factors in a Chinese Sample

Oppositional Defiant Disorder (ODD) is a developmental disorder characterized by serious and persistent social impairment, especially stressful interactions with parents. Although previous studies demonstrated associations between parent mental health and children’s ODD symptoms, less attention has been paid to integrating both parent and child risk factors. The purpose of the current study was to investigate the associations among parent emotion regulation, child emotion regulation, parental depression, and child depression in Chinese children with ODD. A total of 234 children with ODD ranging in age from 6 to 13 years, along with their fathers or mothers, completed questionnaires. Results indicated that: (1) Parent emotion regulation, parental depression and child emotion regulation were significantly correlated with children’s depressive symptoms. (2) Parent emotion regulation was related to children’s depression indirectly through parental depression and child emotion regulation. (3) Child emotion regulation fully mediated the relationship between parent emotion regulation and child depression, and also fully mediated the relationship between parental and child depression. These findings highlight the need to improve parent emotion regulation and pay attention to parental mental health, because both risk factors may exacerbate their children’s emotion regulation difficulties and further associate the high level of depressive symptoms among children with ODD.     

Changes in Anxiety Control Beliefs Following a Brief CBT Treatment and Their Association With Anxiety Symptom Reduction

Anxiety control beliefs (i.e., beliefs regarding one’s ability to cope with external, fear-inducing threats and internal reactions to those perceived threats) have been found to negatively predict anxiety symptoms in children and adults and to be modifiable by cognitive-behavioral therapy for anxiety disorders. The current study examines whether changes in anxiety control beliefs were seen following a brief, intensive treatment for specific phobias, and whether those changes were associated with improvements in the targeted phobia and comorbid anxiety disorder symptoms. Participants were 135 children and adolescents (M age = 9.01 years, 49% male) who received one-session treatment (OST) with or without parental involvement for their primary specific phobia. Results indicated that self-reported anxiety control beliefs significantly increased following treatment and that these increases significantly predicted reductions in specific phobia severity and symptoms of comorbid anxiety disorders 6 months and 1 year following treatment. Findings illustrate that involvement in a single 3-hour OST was associated with changes in anxiety control beliefs and demonstrate the potential importance of targeting control beliefs in pediatric anxiety treatment.     

The Relationships Among Parental Anxiety, Parenting, and Children’s Anxiety: The Mediating Effects of Children’s Cognitive Vulnerabilities

Theoretical models have emphasized the roles played by parental anxiety and behavior in the development of childhood anxiety problems. Little is known regarding the differential impacts of mothers and fathers or regarding the processes that mediate these influences. The present study examines the relationships between maternal and paternal trait anxiety, overprotection, and emotional support on the one hand and anxiety symptoms in children on the other hand. This study also explores the mediating role of children’s cognitive vulnerabilities to anxiety disorders in the relationship between parental variables and children’s anxiety. A sample of 80 children and their parents (fathers and mothers), selected from an initial screening of 905 school-aged children, participated in this study. The results indicate that both parents had unique influences on children’s anxiety symptoms: maternal trait anxiety and paternal overprotection and concern were found to independently and positively contribute to children’s anxiety. Furthermore, children’s interpretative biases mediated the relation between maternal trait anxiety and children’s anxiety symptoms. The results of this study underline the importance of considering both paternal and maternal factors in the development of children’s anxiety problems. These findings also have implications for theoretical models of the etiology of anxiety and for the treatment of these problems in children.     

Validation of the Dependency-Oriented and Achievement-Oriented Psychological Control Scale in Middle Childhood

The psychometric properties of the Dependency-oriented and Achievement-oriented Psychological Control Scale (DAPCS) have been proved appropriate for adolescent samples. Since parental psychological control plays a key role in the development of child pathology from an early age, it is important to evaluate the DAPCS in younger samples too. We examine the DAPCS’ validity in two samples of elementary school age children (n = 180 and n = 118). Exploratory and confirmatory factor analyses in the first sample supported a two-factor structure, indicating the distinction between dependency-oriented psychological control (DPC) and achievement-oriented psychological control (APC). Confirmatory factor analysis in the second sample resulted in successful replication of the factor structure. Significant negative correlations between both parental psychological control dimensions and parental emotional support indicated the convergent validity of the scale. Discriminant validity was indicated by a significant unique association between higher levels of DPC and child perceived social problems, and higher levels of APC and child sensitivity to mistakes. This study provides initial justification for the application of a shorter version of the DAPCS in clinical and research settings dealing with parental psychological control in middle childhood and related child adjustment problems.     

The Relation Between Mothers’ Attitudes Toward Maternal Employment and Social Competence of 36-Month-Olds: The Roles of Maternal Psychological Well-Being and Sensitivity

The relation of mothers’ attitudes on the effects of maternal employment on children, psychological well-being, sensitivity of the mother, and children’s socioemotional development were examined in mothers who worked full time (consistently) and mothers who were unemployed during their children’s early years of growth from 6 months of age. Longitudinal observations of 1,213 mothers and children from age 1 to 36 months from the National Institute of Child Health and Human Development (NICHD) Study of Early Child Care were analyzed using structural equation models. Mothers and children benefited when maternal attitudes were consistent with the mothers’ actual employment status. Among consistently employed mothers, those with positive attitudes about employment had better psychological well-being. When mothers who were unemployed, they believed that maternal employment would have positive consequences for their children’s development, they preferred working outside home and they were more likely to show a low level of psychological well-being and poor quality of mother-child relation. Additionally, maternal well-being mediated the relation between a mother’s attitudes and a child’s social competence. For both groups, better psychological well-being of mothers was positively related to better child’s socioemotional outcome. Maternal sensitivity, however, did not mediate the relation between maternal attitudes and child’s social outcomes. The findings shed light on the need for a sensitive measure of characterizing mothers who work versus those who stay at home in order to better understand the effects on a child’s development.     

Parenting behaviour as a mediator between young children's negative emotionality and their anxiety/depression

The goal of this longitudinal study was to examine observed paternal and maternal control (psychological control and autonomy granting) and support (rejection and emotional warmth) as mediators of the relation between children's negative emotionality at 3.5 years of age and depression and anxiety problems at 4.5 years. For 35 children, 60‐min unstructured parent–child interactions were rated at 4.5 years. Results indicated that maternal rejection mediated the relation between children's negative emotionality and their later anxiety/depression. Higher levels of child negative emotionality predicted more psychological control in mothers, but did not predict any parenting behaviours in fathers. Higher levels of paternal autonomy granting were associated with more child anxiety/depression. Unexpectedly, however, more maternal emotional warmth was related to higher levels of child anxiety/depression. The findings offer new insights to guide future research on the (mediating) role of parenting behaviours in the relation between children's negative emotionality and their internalizing problems. Copyright © 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

父母感知的家庭压力对儿童问题行为的影响：父母心理攻击和儿童应激下皮质醇反应的中介作用

儿童问题行为受到环境与个体因素的协同影响。研究以北京150名五、六年级儿童及其家长为被试,探究心理攻击和应激下皮质醇反应在父母感知的家庭压力与儿童问题行为间的中介作用。采用儿童版特里尔社会应激测试测量儿童应激下皮质醇反应,并由家长报告感知的家庭压力、对儿童的心理攻击及儿童的问题行为。结果发现：(1)父母感知的家庭压力可正向预测儿童问题行为;(2)心理攻击在父母感知的家庭压力与儿童问题行为间起中介作用;(3)心理攻击和儿童应激下皮质醇反应在父母感知的家庭压力与儿童问题行为之间起链式中介作用。研究揭示了父母感知压力对儿童问题行为影响的心理和生理机制,从父母和儿童角度为减少儿童问题行为提供了参考。     

Relations Between Parents’ Anxiety Symptoms,Marital Quality,and Preschoolers’ Externalizing and Internalizing Behaviors

Our objective was to expand understanding of the associations between fathers’ and mothers’ anxiety symptoms, their perceptions of marital quality, and their children’s maladjustment behaviors. Sixty Israeli families with a child aged 3–5 participated. Mothers and fathers completed self-report questionnaires assessing parents’ anxiety symptoms, marital dissatisfaction, and marital overt conflict, and child internalizing and externalizing behaviors. The actor–partner interdependence mediation model (APIMeM) design with distinguishable dyads within a path analysis framework was used. Findings showed that marital dissatisfaction of both mothers and fathers partially mediated the links between mothers’ anxiety and child behaviors. For externalizing behaviors, actor and partner effects were found, so that mothers’ anxiety symptoms predicted mothers’ own marital dissatisfaction (actor effect) and fathers’ marital dissatisfaction (partner effect), which, in turn were linked with children’s externalizing behaviors. As for internalizing behaviors, only actor effect was found, so that mothers’ anxiety symptoms were linked with maternal dissatisfaction, which, in turn, was linked with child internalizing behaviors. For fathers’ anxiety symptoms, the APIMeM indicated only direct effects on both internalizing and externalizing behaviors. These findings highlight the risk associated with parental anxiety and the contribution of the marital relations to children’s adjustment and are discussed in light of Bronfenbrenner’s ecological model and Emotional Security Theory.     

Prediction of Preschool Aggression from DRD4 Risk,Parental ADHD Symptoms,and Home Chaos

This study investigated the influence of a child’s DRD4 risk, parental levels of ADHD symptoms, and the interactive influence of these factors on the development of preschool aggression. Additionally, the study investigated the role of home chaos as a mediator between parental ADHD symptoms and child aggression. The sample consisted of 84 4.5-year-old children and their parents. Children were genotyped for the DRD4 polymorphism. ADHD symptoms were self-reported by parents when the child was 2 to 6 months old. Parental reports of home chaos and the child’s aggression were collected 4 years later. Child’s DRD4 risk and parental ADHD symptoms significantly contributed to the prediction of preschool aggression. However, contrary to our hypotheses, no interactions were found between the child’s DRD4 risk and the levels of parental ADHD symptoms. Home chaos played a mediating role in the relation between paternal ADHD symptoms and the child’s aggression. The relation between maternal ADHD symptoms and the child’s aggression was not significantly mediated through the level of home chaos. The current study emphasizes the importance of longitudinally investigating the contribution of parental ADHD symptoms to child aggression, while also exploring the differential contribution of maternal/paternal inattention and hyperactivity-impulsivity symptoms. Moreover, home chaos was found to be a significant environmental mechanism through which paternal ADHD symptoms affect children’s aggression in the preschool years.     

Temperament as Risk and Protective Factors in Obesogenic Eating: Relations Among Parent Temperament,Child Temperament,and Child Food Preference and Eating

Children’s food preferences and eating behaviors have implications for their health and weight status, serving as risk or protective factors for obesity. Although parent and child factors influence children’s eating, few studies have examined parent and child temperament simultaneously in relation to child food preference and eating behaviors. The authors addressed this research gap. Participants were 115 ethnically diverse children between 4 and 6?years old and their parents. Measures included parental temperament traits, parental anxiety, child temperament traits, and child food preference and eating behaviors observed using a laboratory procedure. Results show that children preferred candies over grapes, and that aspects of both child and adult temperament were related to child eating behaviors. Child surgency was linked to eating more candies, while child effortful control was linked to eating more grapes. Parent effortful control was related to children’s preference toward grapes. No relations were found between child eating behaviors and child or parent negative affectivity and parental anxiety. Overall, findings suggest that highly impulsive and poorly self-regulated children may be at risk for obesogenic eating habits.     

父母控制与儿童心理适应的关系：儿童自我控制的中介作用

以555名小学四到六年级儿童为被试,采用问卷调查法考察父母控制与儿童心理适应的关系,以及儿童自我控制在两者关系间的中介作用。结果发现：（1）六年级儿童的自我控制水平显著高于四年级,且情绪症状显著多于四、五年级;男生多动−注意缺陷水平显著高于女生;（2）父母行为控制对儿童积极心理适应具有显著正向预测作用,对儿童消极心理适应具有显著负向预测作用;而父母心理控制对儿童积极心理适应具有显著负向预测作用,对儿童消极心理适应具有显著正向预测作用;（3）儿童自我控制在父母控制（行为控制和心理控制）与儿童多动−注意缺陷和亲社会行为的关系间起显著中介作用,在父母控制与儿童情绪症状关系间中介作用不显著。     

Parental control, trait anxiety, and satisfaction with life in college students

Research on developmental psychopathology has highlighted the role of parental behavior in subsequent development of pathology in children and adolescents. Although parental psychological control has been an area of interest to researchers, the connection between psychological control and anxiety has not been well established. We administered measures of perceived parental control and acceptance (separate forms for mother and father), trait anxiety, and satisfaction with life to 202 undergraduate students. Analysis indicated that perception of parents (both mother and father) as psychologically controlling was significantly positively correlated with trait anxiety and significantly negatively correlated with satisfaction with life. This held even after the effects of psychological control by the other parent were statistically eliminated.