Refining individualized consideration: Distinguishing developmental leadershipand supportive leadership

This study explores the theoretical and empirical distinction between developmental leadership and supportive leadership, which are currently encompassed in a single sub dimension of transformational leadership, individualized consideration. Items were selected to assess these constructs, and hypotheses regarding the differential effects of developmental and supportive leadership were proposed. Confirmatory factor analyses provided support for the proposed distinction between developmental and supportive leadership, although these leadership factors were very strongly associated. Structural equation modelling and multi‐level modelling results indicated that both developmental leadership and supportive leadership displayed unique relationships with theoretically selected outcome measures. Developmental leadership displayed significantly stronger relationships with job satisfaction, career certainty, affective commitment to the organization and role breadth self‐efficacy than did supportive leadership. Results provide initial evidence in support of the discriminant validity of these two types of leadership. Discussion focuses on the need to further examine the construct of developmental leadership.     

The Utility of Homogeneous Subgroups and Individual Information in Prediction

A number of behavioral research studies have employed subgroups of subjects for prediction. In using subgroups for predictive purposes, a key assumption is often overlooked, i.e., at least one of the grouping or predictor dimensions affects the relationships between the other grouping dimensions and the criteria. The purposes of the present study were (a) to emphasize this commonly overlooked assumption and (b) to examine empirically the utility of subgroup versus individual information in prediction. Data collected on 509 freshmen in 32 life history subgroups (19 male and 13 female subgroups) were used to evaluate the utility of subgroup information in prediction. Of 24 criteria (college experience data, e.g., academic achievement) predicted by subgroup information, predictive efficiency of four criterion measures was enhanced when subgroup information was added to individual information. However, for the vast majority of the criterion measures, predictive efficiency would have been lost had only subgroup information been used in prediction. It is recommended that researchers carefully evaluate the effects on predictive efficiency when using subgroups rather than individual information in prediction.     

Psychometric properties of the Interpersonal Reactivity Index in Spanish child and adolescent population

This article analyses the dimensions of the Interpersonal Reactivity Index (IRI; Davis, 1980). The sample comprised 721 Spanish participants between 9 and 16 years old. Diverse exploratory factor analyses were conducted as the basis for the final confirmatory factor analysis, through self-report. The results supported a structure with 5 first-order main factors (Intellectual empathy, Positive emotional empathy, Disorganized emotional empathy, Virtual empathy, and Impassiveness), where the two first factors are nested in a second-order dimension: "Considerate Social Style". The psychometric characteristics of the instrument were adequate. The proposed model is a new alternative to conceptualize the factor structure of empathy.     

Individual differences in psychophysiological responsiveness in laboratory tests of deception

The study examined the interrelationship of a number of measures of electrodermal activity under varying degrees of task demand and their relationship to differential electrodermal responding to critical questions in either a card test (n=126) or a mock agent test (n=84) of deception. The data indicated two dimensions of electrodermal responsiveness: one, a reactivity dimension, related predominantly to differences in base level, and the other, a lability dimension, related to differences in response frequency. A third dimension reflecting differences in the extent to which the electrodermal system was the most responsive relative to other systems was not independent of the second. Both the reactivity and lability dimensions related to indices of differential responding in the laboratory tests of deception, with the second increasing the predictive power of the first. The results were interpreted in terms of two-factor theories of the orienting response relevant to the physiological detection of deception.     

A hierarchical taxonomy of top managers' goals

To embed goal theories more deeply in the domain of top-level leadership behavior and to provide a vehicle to facilitate future research, the authors developed a taxonomy of managerial goals. Interviews with 75 company leaders-founders and presidents-from 3 countries generated 2,182 articulated goals. Content analysis supported 2 taxonomic dimensions: goal content and hierarchical level. The goal content dimension specified 10 categories of substantive goal targets, and the second dimension captured the hierarchical structure of the top leaders' goal sets, with lower-level goals being instrumental toward achieving superordinate goals. The hierarchy comprised 5 goal levels: ultimate, enterprise, strategic, project, and process. Chi-square analyses revealed relationships between goal content and hierarchical level as well as differences between the national subsamples.     

Transformational and transactional leadership: a meta-analytic test of their relative validity

This study provided a comprehensive examination of the full range of transformational, transactional, and laissez-faire leadership. Results (based on 626 correlations from 87 sources) revealed an overall validity of .44 for transformational leadership, and this validity generalized over longitudinal and multisource designs. Contingent reward (.39) and laissez-faire (-.37) leadership had the next highest overall relations; management by exception (active and passive) was inconsistently related to the criteria. Surprisingly, there were several criteria for which contingent reward leadership had stronger relations than did transformational leadership. Furthermore, transformational leadership was strongly correlated with contingent reward (.80) and laissez-faire (-.65) leadership. Transformational and contingent reward leadership generally predicted criteria controlling for the other leadership dimensions, although transformational leadership failed to predict leader job performance.     

The relation between parental influence, body image, and eating behaviors in a nonclinical female sample

The purpose of the current study is to create a comprehensive composite measure of parental influence based on previously developed measures to clarify the underlying dimensions of parental influence and to determine the degree to which parental influence relates to body image and dysfunctional weight concerns. Previously published literature was reviewed for measures of parental influence, and items from 22 measures were condensed and combined into a single questionnaire, which was completed by 367 female undergraduate psychology students. Two dimensions emerged from a principle components analysis: Direct Influence, which includes weight and eating related comments, and Modeling, which includes parental modeling of dieting and related behavior. Direct Influence and Modeling were significantly related to eating disturbance, such as drive for thinness and bulimic symptomatology. Overall, the results integrate the previous literature and clarify the underlying dimensions of parental influence. Further, this study provides directions for future research related to the development and maintenance of body image and eating disturbance.     

Multisource Feedback and Leaders' Goal Performance: Moderating effects of rating purpose,rater perspective,and performance dimension

The main purposes of this study are to examine whether multisource feedback ratings predict leaders' organizational goal performance, and whether the relationships are consistent across the two rating purposes (developmental, administrative), two leadership dimensions behaviors (Consideration, Initiating Structure), and three rating perspectives (supervisor, self, and ‘other’ raters, i.e., peers and subordinates). Leaders (n=396) in a large organization in the transportation industry participated in two multisource feedback programs, the first for developmental purposes and the second 8 months later for administrative purposes. Approximately 1 month later, they were rated by their supervisor on their effectiveness in attaining five organizational performance goals (financial, safety, customer satisfaction, employee satisfaction, diversity). Results revealed that both developmental ratings and administrative ratings uniquely predicted leaders' goal performance. However, both leadership dimension and rater perspective moderated these relationships. Leadership behaviors associated with Consideration were stronger predictors of goal performance for supervisor ratings, whereas behaviors associated with Initiating Structure were stronger predictors of goal performance for self and other ratings.     

Relationships of analytical,practical, and emotional intelligence with behavioral dimensions of performance of top managers

This study examined the relationships among analytical, practical, and emotional intelligence (EI) and five dimensions of managerial behavior. Two sets of hypotheses were tested: one set examined the relationship of each of the three types of intelligence with each of the behavioral dimensions; the second set examined the unique contribution of each type of intelligence to the prediction of each dimension. Twenty‐three one‐day assessment center sessions, including tests and simulation exercises, were administered to 163 top managers in Poland. The behavioral dimensions of leadership, initiative, goal orientation, change orientation, and employee development were related to analytical intelligence and practical intelligence, but not to EI. These findings make unique contributions to understanding the relationships of types of intelligence and managerial behavioral dimensions.     

不同人际关系中青少年宽恕心理特点

本研究关注冒犯者与受害者之间的关系对宽恕的影响以及青少年宽恕水平的三个维度的特点。采用Enright宽恕问卷对388名12.00-21.67岁的青少年施测。数据分析采用方差分析。结果显示,对于青少年来说有两大类型的冒犯者,同伴（40.9%）和家庭成员（29.9%）。当冒犯者是同伴时,初中生的宽恕水平最高;当冒犯者是家人时,各个年龄段的青少年宽恕水平不存在显著差异。在初中阶段,对于各种冒犯者的宽恕水平差异不显著;在高中和大学阶段,对家人的宽恕显著高于同伴。在所有年龄段,宽恕情绪维度的水平明显低于行为和认知维度。     

Personality, birth order and attachment styles as related to various types of jealousy

The relationships between jealousy, personality, attachment styles and birth order were examined in a sample of 100 Dutch men and 100 Dutch women. Three types of jealousy were examined: reactive jealousy (a negative response to the emotional or sexual involvement of the partner with someone else), preventive jealousy (efforts to prevent intimate contact of the partner with a third person), and anxious jealousy (obsessive anxiety, upset, and worrying about the possibility of infidelity of the partner). The three types of jealousy were not at all related to egoism and dominance, but significantly correlated with neuroticism, social anxiety, rigidity and hostility. Only among women was a low self-esteem correlated with jealousy. On all three jealousy measures, those with an anxious-ambivalent attachment style were more jealous than those with an avoidant style, with those with a secure attachment style being the least jealous. Attachment style was strongly related to most personality dimensions, but the effects of attachment style upon jealousy stayed virtually the same when controlling for personality factors. The most important finding in the present study was that laterborns were more jealous according to all three measures than firstborns, a finding that was not due to personality differences between first- and laterborns, nor to differences in attachment style, gender or occupational level of the father. Because some evidence was found that only borns were slightly less jealous than firstborns, it is suggested that the experience of exclusive love and attention in one's childhood, leads to a lower level of jealousy among firstborns.     

A comparison of two sex-role androgyny measures in a study of sex-role identity for incarcerated delinquent and nondelinquent females

A sample of 100 incarcerated delinquent females and 100 nondelinquent female matched for age and socioeconomic status were compared on three aspects of sex-role identity. The Bem Sex-Role Inventory and the PRF ANDRO scale were used to assess sex-role androgyny; the Traditional Family Ideology scale was used to assess sex-role attitudes; and several questions concerning heterosexual relationships were asked. Correspondence between the two androgyny measures was moderate at the interval level of measurement and poor at the nominal level. Repeat offenders were significantly higher than first-time offenders and nondelinquents on the BSRI masculine scale; a significantly higher percentage of repeat offenders were classified as androgynous by the BSRI. No differences were observed using the PRF ANDRO scales. Heterosexual relationships were more important in the lives of delinquent females on both friendship and helping dimensions.     

Leadership transformationnel du superviseur et solitude professionnelle des employés

Based on the multifactor leadership theory (Bass, 1985), the study aims at testing the relationship between dimensions of transformational leadership (charisma, intellectual stimulation, individualized consideration, contingent reward, management-by-exception, laisser-faire) and employees’ loneliness. Participants were 288 adults employed across several organizations. A path analysis with structural equation modeling was performed to test the relationship between dimensions of leadership and loneliness. All relationships were significant except between charisma and loneliness. The results tend to shed light on the importance of transformational leadership in explaining loneliness at work.     

Predicting diagnosis performance with measures of cognitive style

This study examines the relationship between performance on a context-independent fault diagnosis task and two dimensions of cognitive style: field dependence/independence (D-I) and focusing/scanning (F-S). The effects on diagnosis performance of training and the ability of both dimensions of style jointly to predict fault-finding ability were considered. The results showed that field independents and focusers were superior fault diagnosticians. Training, in the form of verbal feedback messages, was uniformly effective for the D-I dimension although field independents maintained a superior level of performance, over field dependents. In general, for the F-S dimension, training had little effect on either the focusers or scanners. A combination of scores on the F-S and D-I dimensions significantly enhanced the proportion of the variance in testing efficiency that could be accounted for during fault-finding. Finally it is argued that the F-S and D-I dimensions should be recognized as measures of ability, not style. Future research should be directed at identifying between subject differences on fault diagnosis tasks with reference to theories of information processing.     

Relationships between regulatory temperament dimensions and self-regulatory behaviors at 4 and 6 months of age

The present study focused on relationships between temperament and behavior in early regulation development. Unlike most studies on the topic, we observed infant behavior in a naturalistic playful situation rather than in experimental stressful procedure, and employed temperament measures uniquely reflecting regulatory dispositions rather than a global measure of reactivity. The infant's self-regulatory behaviors were observed at 4 and 6 months during face-to-face interactions and regulatory dimensions were assessed at 4 months. We found that low intensity pleasure and soothability dimensions, related to the infant physical and social experience, respectively, significantly affected regulatory behavior and their influence showed to depend on the infant's age, with the former dimension being influential at the earlier age and the latter being influential when the behavior was observed at the later age. Results are interpreted on the light of a dynamic view of regulation development.     

Predicting diagnosis performance with measures of cognitive style

This study examines the relationship between performance on a context-independent fault diagnosis task and two dimensions of cognitive style: field dependence/independence (D-I) and focusing/scanning (F-S). The effects on diagnosis performance of training and the ability of both dimensions of style jointly to predict fault-finding ability were considered. The results showed that field independents and focusers were superior fault diagnosticians. Training, in the form of verbal feedback messages, was uniformly effective for the D-I dimension although field independents maintained a superior level of performance, over field dependents. In general, for the F-S dimension, training had little effect on either the focusers or scanners. A combination of scores on the F-S and D-I dimensions significantly enhanced the proportion of the variance in testing efficiency that could be accounted for during fault-finding. Finally it is argued that the F-S and D-I dimensions should be recognized as measures of ability, not style. Future research should be directed at identifying between subject differences on fault diagnosis tasks with reference to theories of information processing.     

The effects of sequential presentation and spatial arrangements on the free classification of multidimensional stimuli

Subjects classified sets of eight stimuli, constructed from three binary dimensions, into discrete groups in any way they wished. The stimuli were presented either simultaneously (all atonce) or sequentially (one at a time). When stimuli were presented simultaneously, different spatial arrangements did not produce different classifications. When stimuli were presented sequentially, in some sequential orders the level of each dimension varied at a different position in the sequence. For these orders, Ss tended to use the two levels of the first dimension that varied to classify the stimuli into two groups. But, other orders in which the levels of all dimensions varied on the second stimulus did not influence Ss’ classification. A comparison of sequential and simultaneous presentation showed for sequential presentation: (a) a smaller number of classifications was made using the dimensional structure to classify the stimuli, and (b)of those classifications that were dimensional, fewer dimensions were used to classify the stimuli into groups.     

Validity of Six Openness Facets in Predicting Work Behaviors: A Meta-Analysis

To illustrate the importance of facet-level investigations in predicting organizational outcomes and the need for more primary studies on this topic, we conducted a meta-analysis that took an exploratory look at differential relationships among 7 organizational criteria and Openness traits varying in breadth. Nine Openness predictors—the global dimension, 2 aspects (intellect and culture), and 6 facets (intellectual efficiency, ingenuity, curiosity, aesthetics, tolerance, and depth)—were examined in relations with various organizational criteria such as traditional performance outcomes (task performance, contextual performance, counterproductive work behavior), turnover, leadership effectiveness, training performance, and adaptive performance. Our results support the idea that Openness facets could exhibit differential validity for many organizational outcomes.     

Counterproductive Work Behavior and Organizational Citizenship Behavior

Counterproductive work behavior (CWB) and organizational citizenship behavior (OCB) are two seemingly opposite types of active and volitional behaviors. However, previous research on the mutual relationships between these two types of behavior has yielded inconclusive results. Such relationships are of particular interest in countries such as Poland, which is still in the process of economic and social transformation from a communist to a capitalist system. Therefore, the current study sought to re-examine the relationships between OCB and CWB in a large sample of Polish employees. One thousand and fifty-one employees were recruited from small, medium, and large Polish enterprises to take part in the study, and they completed questionnaire measures of CWB and OCB. The results showed that the overall frequencies of CWB and OCB were statistically significantly correlated. However, while some dimensions of OCB were found to be significantly negatively correlated with certain categories of CWB, one dimension of OCB was significantly positively correlated with CWB. Cluster analysis allowed for distinguishing of four subgroups of participants with different profiles of CWB and OCB, including a subgroup that exhibited equal levels of OCB and CWB and a subgroup that exhibited high levels of CWB cooccurring with increased frequencies of some dimensions of OCB. These results demonstrate that, overall, CWB and OCB are relatively independent and unrelated constructs; however, their particular dimensions may show a more complex pattern of relationships.     

Indonesian leadership styles: A mixed‐methods approach

Indonesian leadership characteristics were examined in three studies, using mixed methods. In the first, qualitative study 127 indigenous characteristics of Indonesian leadership were identified from interviews and focus group discussions with Indonesian managers and staff. In the second study, a questionnaire based on the characteristics found in the first study was administered to Indonesian managers to identify Indonesian leadership styles. Using factor analysis, two highly correlated dimensions were extracted, labelled benevolent paternalism and transformational leadership. In the third study, a questionnaire consisting of leadership characteristics from the GLOBE study, supplemented with a selection of 49 items from the Indonesian questionnaire, was administered to another sample of Indonesian managers. We found that Indonesian leadership has two components; the first involves a more local modernization dimension that ranges from (traditional) benevolent paternalism to (modern) transformational leadership, the second is a more universal person‐ versus team‐oriented leadership dimension. We conclude that Indonesian leadership has both emic and etic aspects.