Cognitive and coping mechanisms in the interplay between intimate partner violence and depression

This study examined the association between intimate partner violence, maladaptive cognitive schemas, coping, and depression in a sample of 298 battered women. The results indicated that maladaptive cognitive schemas were associated with less use of primary and secondary engagement coping, and higher use of disengagement coping. In particular, cognitive schemas reflecting disconnection and rejection accounted for the association between psychological abuse and percentage of disengagement coping. In addition, disengagement coping partially mediated between cognitive schemas and depressive symptoms. Finally, the role of cognitive schemas as personal constraints that affect the choice of coping and the implications for interventions with victims are discussed.     

Intimate partner violence and depressive symptoms in women: cognitive schemas as moderators and mediators

In this study the role of cognitive schemas as moderators and mediators between intimate partner violence and depressive symptoms was examined. The sample consisted of 312 women who had suffered an abusive relationship. Participants completed measures of physical, psychological and sexual abuse, maladaptive cognitive schemas (disconnection and rejection, autonomy, and other-directedness), and depression. The evidence for a moderation effect was low and mainly restricted to schemas of the impaired autonomy domain. In contrast, the results supported mediational models in which violence was associated to the cognitive schemas, and these in turn were associated to depressive symptoms. Mediation was partial, with the schemas of the disconnection and rejection domain explaining most of the association between violence and depression. Finally, several explanations for these findings are examined, and their implications for the concept and measure of the cognitive schemas are discussed.     

Cognitive difficulties and posttraumatic stress disorder in female victims of intimate partner violence

Subjective cognitive complaints of women exposed to intimate partner violence (IPV) and nonabused women were examined using the Cognitive Difficulties Scale (CDS). Cognitive complaints were compared among victims of IPV with a lifetime diagnosis of posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) (PTSD+; n=20), victims of IPV without lifetime PTSD (PTSD-; n=21), and a nonabused comparison group (n=22). The results indicated that both the PTSD+ and PTSD- groups had significantly higher levels of self-perceived cognitive difficulties than nonabused women. Furthermore, PTSD symptom severity was found to be positively correlated with self-perceived cognitive difficulties (r=.47). Further research is needed to determine whether cognitive complaints are associated with exposure to IPV, with the subsequent development of PTSD, or with other not yet understood factors. Furthermore, additional work is needed to resolve whether cognitive complaints are accompanied by objective evidence of cognitive dysfunction in victims of IPV.     

Relationships between Past Trauma Exposures and PTSD among Survivors of Intimate Partner Violence

This study examined child abuse and community violence exposure as potential risk factors in the development of posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) symptoms following exposure to intimate partner violence (IPV). In a community sample of 51 primarily low-income women who had experienced IPV, childhood exposure to child abuse made a unique contribution to PTSD symptom severity from subsequent IPV. Community violence also accounted for variance in PTSD symptom severity, but in the opposite direction, with individuals exposed to community violence reporting lower levels of PTSD symptoms from IPV. These findings suggest the need for further research to identify which factors related to community violence exposure might inoculate individuals against the development of PTSD following IPV exposure.     

From Survivor to Thriver: A Pilot Study of an Online Program for Rape Victims

Approximately 15% to 20% of women have been victims of rape and close to a third report current rape-related PTSD or clinically significant depression or anxiety. Unfortunately, very few distressed rape victims seek formal help. This suggests a need to develop alternative ways to assist the many distressed victims of sexual violence. Online treatment programs represent a potentially important alternative strategy for reaching such individuals. The current paper describes a pilot evaluation of an online, therapist-facilitated, self-paced cognitive behavioral program for rape victims. Five college women with current rape-related PTSD were recruited to complete the From Survivor to Thriver (S to T) program in a lab setting over the course of 7 weeks. After completing the program, 4 participants reported clinically significant reductions in PTSD symptoms and no longer met criteria for PTSD. All participants reported clinically significant reductions in vulnerability fears and 4 reported significant reductions in negative trauma-related cognitions. Implications of the results for further development of the S to T program and how clinicians could utilize this program in treating rape-related PTSD are discussed.     

Prior interpersonal trauma: the contribution to current PTSD symptoms in female rape victims

The purpose of the current study was to disentangle the relationship of childhood sexual abuse and childhood physical abuse from prior adult sexual and physical victimization in predicting current posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) symptoms in recent rape victims. The participants were a community sample of 117 adult rape victims assessed within 1 month of a recent index rape for a history of child sexual abuse, child physical abuse, other adult sexual and physical victimization, and current PTSD symptoms. Results from path analyses showed that a history of child sexual abuse seems to increase vulnerability for adult sexual and physical victimization and appears to contribute to current PTSD symptoms within the cumulative context of other adult trauma.     

Perpetrator and victim perceptions of perpetrator's masculinity as a risk factor for violence: A meta-ethnography synthesis

Men are over-represented as both perpetrators and victims of violence. The purpose of this systematic review was to examine the relationship between masculinity and violence from the perspectives of the perpetrators and victims. In order to provide the best available scientific evidence, four databases were searched and a Critical Appraisal Skills Programme tool was used to evaluate 10 studies. A meta-ethnography approach was also employed to synthesize the selected studies. The analysis revealed a number of reciprocal themes that act as risk factors for violence. This included a masculinization process, available resources, ethnic minority identification and alcohol and substance abuse. This review highlights the need for further research exploring different reciprocal themes and their association with masculinity and violence. Further research in this field could help clinicians improve their practice by helping clinicians widen their discussions about the violence committed by some males. Additional investigations could also improve offender treatment programs, which, in turn, could assist offenders by helping them challenge schemas and cognitive distortions that may precipitate their violence.     

The Temporal Relations of PTSD Symptoms Among Treatment-Seeking Victims of Sexual Assault: A Longitudinal Study

This prospective study assessed the temporal relationships between the symptom clusters of PTSD in two nonprobability samples of treatment-seeking victims of sexual abuse: rape victims and adult survivors of childhood sexual abuse. Both groups were assessed at three time periods using self-report measures of PTSD symptomology. Findings from two cross-lagged panel analyses indicated weak temporal relationships between the symptom clusters of PTSD; however, avoidance and emotional numbing symptoms were found to exert the strongest cross-lagged effects. Avoidance and emotional numbing symptoms were also found to be the strongest predictor of subsequently meeting caseness for PTSD in both samples. Results suggest that there are minimal cross-lagged effects between the PTSD symptom clusters after three months from traumatic exposure.     

Analysis of early representations and personality among victims of domestic violence

IntroductionThis exploratory study analyses the individual elements of the victims of domestic violence through life events, early dysfunctional representations and personality.ObjectivesThis research aims, firstly, to show the existence of early traumatic experiences for the victims of domestic violence. Secondly, it aims to measure the prevalence of early maladaptive schema and identify personality traits in these subjects. Finally, our aim is to highlight that depending on the violence carried out within the couple (reciprocal/unilateral), activated schemas and personality traits are different.MethodOur sample consists of 80 female subjects, non-abused women (n = 40) and victims of domestic violence (n = 40), of which 22 victims of unilateral violence and 18 victims of reciprocal violence. Participants filled out an initial questionnaire as well as the scales and self-report questionnaires as follows: Life events (Amiel-Lebigre, 1984); TCI (Cloninger et al., 1993); YSQ-S3 (Young et al., 2005). The data were subject to statistical analysis and were processed using the software SPSS 22.ResultsThe results show that the victims have experienced more early traumas than non-victims, that schemas (emotional deprivation, mistrust and abuse, subjugation, self-sacrifice) are more active. We note also different personality traits according to the different groups (victims/non-victims) and subgroups (reciprocal violence/unilateral violence).ConclusionOur study sheds light on the role of the individual elements of the victims on the perception of the relationship and on the process of engagement and disengagement of women in abusive relationships. Limits and expectations of the study are discussed.     

Beziehungsgewalt

The objective of our questionnaire study was to investigate posttraumatic stress disorders of abused women and to analyze differences between affected women suffering from high versus low symptom strain with respect to the duration and intensity of the abuse and to victimization incidences in their childhood. We collected data on characteristics of the abuse relationship, kind and frequency of experienced violence, symptoms of posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD, PCL-C according to DSM-IV), and comorbid complaints (SCL-90-R). Participants were 71 women with a mean age of 43 years. On average, they had lived in an abusive relationship for 11 years. Two thirds had experience with psychotherapy. All provided information on abuse that may be considered traumatic. 62% suffered from injuries necessitating medical treatment at least once, and half sustained lasting physical damage. With respect to all SCL-90-R scales, the research participants were under significantly higher strain than the normed female sample. PTSD was diagnosed in 58%. Compared to women without PTSD, women with PTSD reported very serious assault, comorbid symptoms as well as physical and sexual victimization in their childhood significantly more often.     

Psychopathological profile of battered women according to age

In this paper, differential psychopathological consequences in battered women according to age were analysed in a sample of 148 victims seeking psychological treatment in a Family Violence Centre. The younger victims exposed to intimate partner violence suffered more often from physical violence and were at higher risk for their lives than the older ones. The prevalence rate of posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) was higher (42%) in the younger victims than in the older ones (27%). Likewise, younger victims were affected by more depressive symptoms and lower self-esteem than the older ones. The severity of PTSD in the younger victims was related to the presence of forced sexual relationship but in the older ones, it was related to the perceived threat to their lives. Implications of this study for clinical practice and future research in this field are commented upon.     

The Role of PTSD and Length of Shelter Stay in Battered Women's Severity of Reabuse after Leaving Shelter

Intimate partner violence (IPV) is associated with significant morbidity, including high rates of reabuse even after women have taken steps to achieve safety. This study evaluated the roles of posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) symptom severity and length of shelter stay in the severity of reabuse in 103 IPV victims over a six-month period after leaving a battered women's shelter. Results suggest that the length of shelter stay is inversely related to reabuse severity after leaving shelter. Additionally, more severe PTSD symptoms on shelter exit were associated with greater reabuse severity after leaving shelter. Furthermore, additional study findings support prior research suggesting that the emotional numbing symptoms of PTSD are a significant risk factor for reabuse among IPV victims after leaving shelter.     

A review of acute stress reactions among victims of violence:

This article reviews research pertaining to the psychological trauma occurring in the immediate aftermath of interpersonal violence. The literature surveyed includes studies of victims and observers of various forms of interpersonal violence: rape, threats by a patient, legal execution, terrorist attack, ambush, and assassination, mass shootings, and other forms of homicide. The empirical evidence indicates that individuals commonly experience disruptive psychological symptoms immediately following violence. Further, there is evidence that acute stress reactions can lead to posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD). The limited amount of research conducted on treatment interventions on acute stress reactions to violence indicates that there is not one best intervention. However, the high prevalence of acute stress reactions among victims immediately following interpersonal violence, coupled with evidence that acute stress symptoms predict PTSD, underscore the importance of providing early intervention to victims of interpersonal violence.     

Testing Posttraumatic Stress as a Mediator of Childhood Trauma and Adult Intimate Partner Violence Victimization

This study examined whether potential posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) mediated the relationships between different forms of childhood trauma (sexual abuse, physical abuse, violence between caregivers) and intimate partner violence (IPV) victimization (psychological, physical, sexual). Participants were 1,150 female nurses and nursing personnel. Path analytic findings revealed potential PTSD partially mediated the relationships between childhood sexual abuse and psychological IPV and childhood sexual abuse and sexual IPV. Potential PTSD did not mediate the relationship between other types of childhood trauma and IPV. This study adds to the literature indicating PTSD as a risk factor for revictimization in the form of adult IPV among women. Screening for and treatment of PTSD among female child sexual abuse survivors could prevent future IPV victimization.     

PTSD,comorbid depression,and the cortisol waking response in victims of intimate partner violence: preliminary evidence

Posttraumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) and Major Depressive Disorder (MDD) are two highly comorbid and debilitating disorders experienced by more than half of intimate partner violence victims (IPV). Hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal (HPA) abnormalities are common in both disorders, though the direction of abnormalities often differs. The present study examined the relationship between comorbid PTSD and MDD, and the (salivary) cortisol waking response in 104 recently abused IPV victims. Waking cortisol levels, area under the waking curve with respect to ground (AUCg), and AUC with respect to increase (AUCi) were examined to determine the relation of HPA dynamics to comorbidity for basal versus more dynamic measures. Prior to accounting for comorbidity, women with PTSD or MDD showed significantly greater AUCi than women without the respective disorder. Accounting for comorbidity, PTSD only did not differ from other groups, while MDD only and PTSD + MDD showed greater AUCi than women with neither disorder. Results were nonsignificant for waking cortisol levels or AUCg. Results suggest that MDD drives elevated waking cortisol response, but not basal cortisol activity in recently abused IPV victims. Results demonstrate the importance of examining comorbid diagnoses and HPA activity from a dynamic perspective. Therapeutic implications are discussed.     

Post‐Traumatic Symptoms Among Victims of Workplace Bullying: Exploring Gender Differences and Shattered Assumptions

The aims of the present study were twofold: assessing the prevalence and intensity of post‐traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) symptoms in victims of bullying, and exploring whether victims of bullying differ in their basic assumptions compared to a control group. A total of 183 victims of bullying and 183 control group participants took part in the research. The results showed that 42.6% of the total sample met all DSM‐IV‐TR criteria for PTSD, whereas 54.1% did not fulfill the A1 criterion. Post‐traumatic symptoms were more prevalent among women (49%), as compared to men (35.3%). Furthermore, victims showed significantly more negative beliefs about the world, the people, and themselves, compared to their non‐bullied controls. These results fit well with cognitive theory of trauma.     

Exploring negative emotion in women experiencing intimate partner violence: shame, guilt, and PTSD

This study explored the association of shame and guilt with PTSD among women who had experienced intimate partner violence (IPV). Sixty-three women were assessed by a research clinic serving the mental health needs of women IPV survivors. Results indicated that shame, guilt-related distress, and guilt-related cognitions showed significant associations with PTSD but global guilt did not. When shame and guilt were examined in the context of specific forms of psychological abuse, moderation analyses indicated that high levels of both emotional/verbal abuse and dominance/isolation interacted with high levels of shame in their association with PTSD. Neither guilt-related distress nor guilt-related cognitions were moderated by specific forms of psychological abuse in their association with PTSD. These data support the conceptualization of shame, guilt distress, and guilt cognitions as relevant features of PTSD. Results are discussed in light of proposed changes to diagnostic criteria for PTSD.     

Predicting PTSD symptoms in victims of violent crime: the role of shame, anger, and childhood abuse

To examine the role of cognitive-affective appraisals and childhood abuse as predictors of crime-related posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) symptoms, 157 victims of violent crime were interviewed within 1 month post-crime and 6 months later. Measures within 1 month post-crime included previous physical and sexual abuse in childhood and responses to the current crime, including shame and anger with self and others. When all variables were considered together, shame and anger with others were the only independent predictors of PTSD symptoms at 1 month, and shame was the only independent predictor of PTSD symptoms at 6 months when 1-month symptoms were controlled. The results suggest that both shame and anger play an important role in the phenomenology of crime-related PTSD and that shame makes a contribution to the subsequent course of symptoms. The findings are also consistent with previous evidence for the role of shame as a mediator between childhood abuse and adult psychopathology.     

Cognitive factors involved in the onset and maintenance of posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) after physical or sexual assault.

Cognitive factors hypothesised to influence the development and maintenance of PTSD were investigated. 92 assault victims completed questionnaires assessing a range of cognitive variables. Factors relating to onset of PTSD were investigated by comparing victims who did and who did not suffer PTSD. Factors relating to maintenance of PTSD were investigated by comparing victims who had recovered from PTSD with victims who had persistent PTSD. Cognitive factors associated with both onset and maintenance of PTSD were: appraisal of aspects of the assault itself (mental defeat, mental confusion, appraisal of emotions); appraisal of the sequelae of the assault (appraisal of symptoms, perceived negative responses of others, permanent change); dysfunctional strategies (avoidance/safety seeking) and global beliefs impacted by assault. Cognitive factors that were associated only with the onset of PTSD were: detachment during assault; failure to perceive positive responses from others and mental undoing. Relationships between the cognitive variables and PTSD remained significant when variations in perceived and objective assault severity were statistically controlled. The cognitive factors identified in the study may contribute to PTSD directly, by generating a sense of ongoing threat, or indirectly, by motivating cognitive and behavioural strategies that prevent recovery, or by affecting the nature of the traumatic memory.     

Justification of Violence and Grandiosity Schemas as Predictors of Antisocial Behavior in Adolescents

This study assessed the role of grandiosity and justification of violence cognitive schemas as predictors of adolescents’ antisocial behavior. The 974 Spanish adolescents (457 girls and 517 boys, aged between 14 and 18 years) were assessed at the beginning of the school year and at follow-up 6 months later. They completed measures of aggressive behavior and delinquent behavior, justification of violence and grandiosity cognitive schemas, and impulsivity. The results showed that grandiosity and justification of violence schemas predicted both aggressive and delinquent behavior 6 months later and that the association between grandiosity and aggressive behavior was moderated by impulsivity in boys. In general, the influence of the cognitive schemas in antisocial behavior was very similar for boys and girls. However, boys showed higher delinquent behavior rates than did girls and the tests of mediation revealed that this difference was partially accounted for by boys’ higher scores in grandiosity and justification of violence.