Tree representations of ternary relations

In recent years there has been a growing interest in representing data by trees. Most of the literature has been concerned with inferring trees from pairwise data. In this paper, trees are constructed from ternary relations; the model represents each object of an empirical set by a node of a tree so that a betweenness relation among the nodes (the node b is on the path from the node a to the node c) in the graph reflects a ternary relation among the objects. Various systems of formal properties that lead to three different kinds of tree representation are investigated.     

The Tree of life and the Tree of death: A study of Gnostic symbols

This article is an analysis of the symbol of the Tree in Gnostic religion. The most striking characteristic of this symbol is that its qualities and functions are determined more by anthropology than by botany. In Gnostic religion the physiological processes of human fertilization and gestation are used as metaphors for the process of making a spiritual man. The Tree is life-giving, and can be perceived as being either female or male. In the latter case, the male generative Tree is opposed by a female Tree of death. The symbol of the Tree is applied both in Christian Gnostic systems and in systems which are not Christianized. The Tree can be personalized and may be associated either with Jesus or with Eve. In the Conclusion, the problem of the Tree as a universal symbol is discussed.     

Tree proofs for syllogistic

This paper presents a tree method for testing the validity of inferences, including syllogisms, in a simple term logic. The method is given in the form of an algorithm and is shown to be sound and complete with respect to the obvious denotational semantics. The primitive logical constants of the system, which is indebted to the logical works of Jevons, Brentano and Lewis Carroll, are term negation, polyadic term conjunction, and functors affirming and denying existence, and use is also made of a metalinguistic concept of formal synonymy. It is indicated briefly how the method may be extended to other systems.To the memory of Jerzy Supecki     

圣诞树的由来

有关圣诞节的传说,流传最广的来自德国16世纪的宗教改革家马丁·路德……     

老树的神话

以前,老树村的人们把一门子心思全用在顾吃顾穿上了,并不曾想到这棵老树有什么用处,只以为它不过是棵奇形怪状的老树而已.自打肚子饱了身上暖了以后,心思就宽松了,也就有了悟性和雅趣.不知哪一天,有人到这棵老树下转了半天,便像哥伦布发现新大陆一样有了新发现:这是一棵夫妻树!     

投射测验体系中的树木意象

树木是绘画测验中常用的意象之一, 其主要的分析体系为房树人测试与树木测试, 二者对树木的操作过程和分析方法存在差异。树木意象的测试具有一定的信效度, 可以有效地反应个体的心理状态, 敏锐地体现出个体与当前环境的交互作用, 检测病理性创伤反应, 鉴别特殊群体。未来研究可考虑测试的文化特异性, 进一步检验树木–伤疤–创伤理论并完善其在灾难心理领域的应用, 也期待研究者改进测试程序并继续对其进行标准化。     

老树冤枉

在我的家乡,有一个地方名叫松树坡。地名的由来,是因为山坡上有一棵巨大的铁杉;铁杉的树干上长有层层鳞状的甲,所以当地人把它叫做铁甲松。树高约20多米,树干的胸径近两米,两个小伙子合抱还不能围拢,把直径大约有10多米的树冠稳稳地举在空中,就像一朵缩小的氢弹爆炸后形成的蘑菇云。 方园百里之内,找不出第二棵这么大的老树。听一个已90多岁的老人说,在她还是小孩子的时候,此树就是这个样子了;在她之上的上辈人留给她的回忆也是“小时候就见它是这个样子了”。按这么一个“不见长进”的速度估计,此树至少已是位“千岁爷”了。     

树崇拜与道教

“树崇拜”是早期人类所信奉的原始崇拜习俗之一。世界各地不同的民族有着不同的“树崇拜”类型,有的认为树木是“精灵住所”,树上有神的使者;有的认为树是“家族名字的来源”,树与宗族有密不可分的关系;还有的认为树林是宗教崇拜的地方,是一个神圣的处所,“唯一的庙宇”①。中     

How Berkeley's Gardener Knows His Cherry Tree

The defense of common sense in Berkeley's Three Dialogues is, first and foremost, a defense of the gardener's claim to know his cherry tree, a claim threatened by both Cartesian and Lockean philosophy. This defense depends on the esse is percipi thesis (EIP). EIP is not something the gardener believes; rather, it is a philosophical analysis of the rules he unreflectively follows in his use of the word ‘exists’. Uncovering these connections between Berkeley's epistemology and philosophy of language will clarify Berkeley's strategy for bringing his reader back to common sense and practical engagement in the ordinary affairs of life.     

Agrammatism and the Psychological Reality of the Syntactic Tree

Syntactic trees, or phrase markers, have originally been suggested as a representation of syntax in the mind based on purely linguistic grounds. In this paper, the psychological reality of syntactic trees and hierarchical ordering is explored from another perspective—that of the neuropsychology of language breakdown. The study reported here examined several syntactic domains that rely on different nodes in the tree—tense and agreement verb inflection, subordinations, interrogatives, and verb movement, through a study of 14 Hebrew- and Palestinian Arabic-speaking agrammatic aphasics and perusal of the cross-linguistic literature. The results show that the impairment in agrammatic production is highly selective and lends itself to characterization in terms of a deficit in the syntactic tree. The complex pattern of dissociations follows from one underlying deficit—the inaccessibility of high nodes of the syntactic tree to agrammatic speakers. Structures that relate to high nodes of the tree are impaired, while lower structures are spared.     

樗下悟道

<正>南华真人笔下有一棵大树——樗,它外形丑陋,浑身疙里疙瘩,枝干弯弯扭扭,匠人们想用绳墨规矩度量度量它,却感到无从下手,只好纷纷弃之而去……多少年过去了,大樗虽历经尘世间风雨洗礼,却依然挺立于无何有之乡,广漠之野。     

论杜光庭的三教融合思想及其影响

唐代道教既是道教思想发展的高峰期,也是道教思想的转型期。本文以唐末道教思想家杜光庭为例来说明,道教正是以“道”为基点,努力融合儒佛道三教的思想,提升道教的哲学理论思维水平,才建构起富有特色的道教理论,从而推动了唐宋时期道教思想的发展与转型的。     

Disfluencies, language comprehension, and Tree Adjoining Grammars

Disfluencies include editing terms such as uh and um as well as repeats and revisions. Little is known about how disfluencies are processed, and there has been next to no research focused on the way that disfluencies affect structure-building operations during comprehension. We review major findings from both computational linguistics and psycholinguistics, and then we summarize the results of our own work which centers on how the parser behaves when it encounters a disfluency. We describe some new research showing that information associated with misarticulated verbs lingers, and which adds to the large body of data on the critical influence of verb argument structures on sentence comprehension. The paper also presents a model of disfluency processing. The parser uses a Tree Adjoining Grammar to build phrase structure. In this approach, filled and unfilled pauses affect the timing of Substitution operations. Repairs and corrections are handled by a mechanism we term “Overlay,” which allows the parser to overwrite an undesired tree with the appropriate, correct tree. This model of disfluency processing highlights the need for the parser to sometimes coordinate the mechanisms that perform garden-path reanalysis with those that do disfluency repair. The research program as a whole demonstrates that it is possible to study disfluencies systematically and to learn how the parser handles filler material and mistakes. It also showcases the power of Tree Adjoining Grammars, a formalism developed by Aravind Joshi which has yielded results in many different areas of linguistics and cognitive science.     

Hierarchical Multinomial Processing Tree Models: A Latent-Class Approach

Multinomial processing tree models are widely used in many areas of psychology. Their application relies on the assumption of parameter homogeneity, that is, on the assumption that participants do not differ in their parameter values. Tests for parameter homogeneity are proposed that can be routinely used as part of multinomial model analyses to defend the assumption. If parameter homogeneity is found to be violated, a new family of models, termed latent-class multinomial processing tree models, can be applied that accommodates parameter heterogeneity and correlated parameters, yet preserves most of the advantages of the traditional multinomial method. Estimation, goodness-of-fit tests, and tests of other hypotheses of interest are considered for the new family of models. The author thanks Bill Batchelder, Edgar Erdfelder, Thorsten Meiser, and Christoph Stahl for helpful comments on a previous version of this paper. The author is also grateful to Edgar Erdfelder for making available the data set analyzed in this paper.