Motivation and self‐regulation: The role of want‐to motivation in the processes underlying self‐regulation and self‐control

Research on self‐regulation has largely focused on the idea of effortful self‐control, which assumes that exerting willpower will lead to greater success. However, in recent years, research has challenged this perspective and instead proposes that effortless self‐regulation is more adaptive for long‐term goal pursuit. Taking into consideration the burgeoning literature on effortless self‐regulation, here we propose that motivation—or the reasons why we pursue our goals—plays an integral role in this process. The objective of the present paper is to highlight how motivation can play a role in how self‐regulation unfolds. Specifically, we propose that pursuing goals because you want‐to (vs. have‐to) is associated with better goal attainment as a function of experiencing less temptations and obstacles. While the reason why want‐to motivation relates to experiencing fewer obstacles has yet to be thoroughly explored, here we propose some potential mechanisms drawing from recent research on self‐regulation. We also provide recommendations for future research, highlighting the importance of considering motivation in the study of self‐regulatory processes.     

Heart rate variability predicts self‐control in goal pursuit

The aim of our study was to investigate the effects of a failure experience on the exercise of self‐control in goal pursuit. We hypothesized that tonic heart rate variability (tonic HRV), a possible physiological marker of inhibitory capacity, increases the exercise of self‐control in the pre‐ and post‐actional phase in goal pursuit after failure. Participants received feedback for an alleged intelligence test and subsequently worked on the same test again. As indicators of exercised self‐control, we assessed self‐confidence in the pre‐actional phase and rumination in the post‐actional phase. As hypothesized, tonic HRV was positively associated with pre‐ and post‐actional self‐control, even after controlling for the effect of neuroticism. We discuss the implications of our results for the self‐regulatory strength model. Copyright © 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

The function of value in self‐regulation

This commentary argues for a functional perspective of the value–engagement relationship, proposing that evaluation determines engagement. I compare this causal direction—from value to engagement—to regulatory engagement theory, which proposes that engagement determines evaluation. I demonstrate the functional view in self-control research, which finds that people overcome obstacles for goal pursuit, including low probabilities of success, by increasing the value of adhering to an overriding goal. I further suggest that whereas both causal directions—from value to engagement and from engagement to value—are theoretically plausible, empirical studies should provide better ways to distinguish between these conceptually different underlying models.     

Influence of achievement goals and self‐efficacy on students' self‐regulation and performance

It is widely admitted that low self‐efficacy has a detrimental impact on the functioning and performance of a person mainly concerned with performance goals but has no impact when a person is mainly concerned with learning goals (Dweck, 1986 ). However, results from both correlational and experimental studies are divergent. Since these studies examined very few indicators of participants' cognitive functioning, they may have failed to detect those aspects that could be more vulnerable to a negative impact of the combination of performance goals and low self‐efficacy. Another concern is the lack of most studies to clearly distinguish the type of performance goal examined, particularly the performance‐avoidance versus the performance‐approach goal. In the current study, we decided to focus on performance‐approach and learning goals in order to examine how self‐efficacy intervenes in their effects on participants' self‐regulation and performance on a cognitive task. One hundred and forty participants (85 females and 55 males) were examined. They were randomly assigned either to the learning or the performance‐approach goals condition. In each condition, half of the participants received feedback aimed at inducing either high or low self‐efficacy beliefs with regard to the task prior to executing it aloud. Examination of participants' verbal reports, direct observation of some of their behaviours while solving the task, and responses to a retrospective questionnaire allowed the assessment of several indicators of their self‐regulation and performance. As already reported by many studies, self‐efficacy influenced various aspects of participants' self‐regulation and performance. However, contrary to Dweck's hypothesis ( 1986 ), when interaction effects between self‐efficacy and goals were observed, they always involved learning instead of performance‐approach goals. Findings of this study suggest that the nature of the goal might not matter as much as its personal significance or value.     

Engaging in self‐regulation results in low‐level construals

Previous research has suggested that self‐regulation results in low‐level construals but has inferred construal levels after self‐regulation only indirectly, through construal‐dependent judgments and choices. In the present paper, we demonstrate a direct link between engaging in self‐regulation and low‐level construals, by manipulating self‐regulation and subsequently assessing construal levels using well‐established and straightforward measures of construal level in three studies. Participants who engaged in self‐regulation subsequently provided lower egocentric spatial distance estimates (Studies 1A and 1B), formed more groups when categorizing objects (Study 2), and used more concrete language when describing cartoon main characters' behavior (Study 3) than participants who did not engage in self‐regulation. These findings provide direct evidence that low‐level construals result from engaging in self‐regulation. Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Early predictors of self‐regulation in middle childhood

The present study examined the contribution of caregiving practices at ages 4–5 (Time 1) to children's capacity for self‐regulation at ages 8–9 (Time 2). The multi‐ethnic sample comprised 549 children of National Longitudinal Survey of Youth (NLSY) participants. High levels of maternal warmth and low levels of physically punitive discipline at Time 1 were associated with a greater capacity for self‐regulation at Time 2. These associations remained significant once initial levels of self‐regulation were taken into account, indicating that the development of self‐regulation is open to caregiver influence during childhood. Neither child gender nor ethnicity moderated the effects of early parenting practices on later self‐regulation; the interaction between low maternal warmth and high discipline was also non‐significant. Findings add to the literature on how early parenting practices shape children's capacity for effective self‐regulation, and have implications for researchers and practitioners. Copyright © 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Self‐control depletion impairs goal maintenance: A meta‐analysis

Initial exertion of self‐control has been suggested to impair subsequent self‐regulatory performance. The specific cognitive processes that underlie this ego depletion effect have rarely been examined. Drawing on the dual‐process theory of executive control (Engle & Kane, 2004 ; Kane & Engle, 2003 ), the current meta‐analysis revealed that initial self‐control exertion impairs participants’ capacities of maintaining the task goal but its effect on capacities of resolving response competition is in need of further investigation. Our results are more consistent with recent theoretical views that consider ego depletion as a switch cost and a result arising from reduced motivation to engage in further self‐control.     

Implementation intentions as goal primes: Boosting self‐control in tempting environments

People often forget their long‐term strivings because their environment confronts them with attractive temptations. Previous research suggests that self‐control failures can be prevented by reminding people of their higher‐order goal. Therefore, we hypothesized that using implementation intentions as a tool to directly re‐activate people's higher‐order goal in tempting situations would effectively enhance self‐control. We tested this in the domain of dieting behavior. Results demonstrated that this specific planning strategy activated the dieting goal for unsuccessful dieters when exposed to tempting food cues (Study 1) and reduced their consumption of calorically dense food across 2 weeks (Study 2) compared to those in control conditions. This suggests that preparing people to think of their higher‐order goal when tempted can be used to protect ongoing goal striving. Appealing to higher‐order goals potentially makes implementation intentions flexible instruments of self‐regulation as this should trigger motivated behavior to reach goals and initiate various goal‐instrumental actions. Copyright © 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Parenting and self‐regulation in preschoolers: a meta‐analysis

A meta‐analysis of 41 studies was conducted to examine the strength of the relation between parenting (positive control, negative control and responsiveness) and self‐regulation in preschoolers. Results revealed significant associations between both types of parental control and self‐regulation, with effect sizes being small in magnitude. There was no significant association between self‐regulation and responsiveness. The strength of the association between parenting and self‐regulation varied with different conceptualizations of self‐regulation; positive and negative control were associated with child compliance, but not with inhibition and emotion regulation. Copyright © 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Development of the Two‐Dimensional Mood Scale for self‐monitoring and self‐regulation of momentary mood states

The purpose of this study was to develop a measure for self‐monitoring and self‐regulation of momentary mood states. The Two‐Dimensional Mood Scale (TDMS), consisting of eight words selected on the basis of pleasure and arousal, was created as an efficient measure of self‐monitoring. In Study 1, the validity and reliability of the TDMS were examined by administering the measure to 904 university students. Structural equation modeling revealed that mood states were constructed of two components, arousal and pleasure, and factor analysis found two factors, vitality and stability. In Study 2, differences between two mood manipulations, activation (exercise) and relaxation techniques were examined in 224 university students. The results showed that exercise induced higher vitality (, ) but no change in stability (, ), while relaxation resulted in an increase in stability (, ) but no change in vitality (, ). The TDMS can be combined with various mood manipulations to enable individuals to self‐regulate and alter negative psychological states.     

Patterns of self‐regulation and the Big Five

The authors examined relations between self‐regulatory properties of personality (ego‐control and ego‐resilience) and the Big Five. Ego‐control and ego‐resilience were independent predictors of each Big Five dimension. Additionally, cluster analysis suggested four replicable ‘types’. Participants in the first (largest) cluster reported the highest levels of resilience and moderately low levels of control. The second cluster reported above‐average resilience and high control. The third cluster reported below‐average resilience and extremely low control. The final cluster reported very low resilience and high control. The four clusters differed systematically in their Big Five profiles. These findings suggest that self‐regulatory processes are co‐ordinated with other basic personality dimensions, and attest to the utility of conducting both variable‐centred and person‐centred analyses. Copyright © 2004 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Effects of shifts in goal origin on goal acceptance and attainment

Current models of goal setting often fail to consider the potential negative effects of goal programs. Control over goal difficulty levels may be an important source of personal control in the workplace and psychological reactance may result from a shift in control over the setting of goals. The present experiment examined the effects of initial goal origin (assigned or self-set) and shifted goal origin (shifted or not shifted) on goal acceptance and attainment over two trial blocks of a verbal task. Several hypotheses based on psychological reactance theory were tested in a laboratory experiment with 160 college undergraduates. Overall analyses revealed significant interactions for goal acceptance and goal attainment over trial blocks. Simple effect analyses isolated this interaction for both dependent variables in a disordinal crossover pattern for the shifted origin groups over trial blocks, as expected. The discussion focuses on fitting these results into the current program guiding goal-setting research and on suggesting future avenues of research. Some implications for the application of goal setting are also discussed.     

Construct validation of a trait self‐regulation model

A confirmatory factor model of trait self‐regulation was tested in a sample of 246 eleventh‐graders in Korea. The good model fit and the pattern of factor correlations indicated that the third‐order factor, trait self‐regulation, was composed of two second‐order factors, trait metacognition and trait motivation; trait metacognition was composed of planning and self‐checking, and trait motivation was composed of effort and self‐efficacy. Trait metacognition and trait motivation were highly related, but were two distinguishable trait constructs. Importance of understanding both state and trait attributes of student characteristics in determining individual differences in learning and performance was discussed. It was suggested that teachers examine students' trait self‐regulatory behaviours via measuring their trait planning and self‐checking behavioural tendencies and their effort and self‐efficacy levels prior to providing self‐regulatory skill training.     

Expertise and self‐regulation processes in a professional task

This study investigated self‐regulation processes in a professional task, a beverage service task, using the model of self‐regulated study. The main purpose was to explore how self‐regulatory activity changes both with professional experience and with memory task demands. In a simulated beverage service task, 22 beginner waiters and 22 experienced waiters were asked to request the drink ordered by each customer until they were sure they knew the entire order. Then, they had to execute an immediate recall of the customer‐beverage pairs and a delayed recall. Results showed that globally beginners did not modify their self‐regulation processes as a function of task demands. By contrast to beginners, experienced waiters increased their self‐regulatory activity when they had to face with a more demanding task. Besides, experts showed higher recall performance than beginners under all conditions. In the conclusion, results from this more naturalistic task were compared to those obtained in experimental studies and discussed. Copyright © 2008 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.