The Lost Analyst and the Phoenix: Image,Word, Myth,and the Journey from Dissociation to Integration

ABSTRACT

The Phoenix myth is commonly thought of as a simple Egyptian parable of re-incarnation. In contrast, this analytic dyad found that the visual images evoked by its elaborated mythemes (sub-plots) related to the various existential moods and affects characteristic of trauma identified by Stolorow (2007 Stolorow, R. D. (2007), Trauma and Human Experience: Autobiographical, Psychoanalytic, and Philosophical Reflections [Psychoanalytic Book Series, Vol. 23]. New York: The Analytic Press. [Google Scholar]), suggesting a psychological purpose, that of emotional self-renewal. Mythology has most consistently been adopted for use in Jung’s analytical psychology, but this article demonstrates this myth’s usefulness with a contemporary relational psychoanalytic approach, that of intersubjective-systems theory. This was effective for an analysand whose former analysis had been abruptly terminated. It was found that the dialogic exploration of possible meaning in the mythemes brought dissociated experience into language, assisted with the emotional integration of the trauma, and restored the analysand’s diminished sense-of-being. Images bring together diverse somatic, cognitive, and verbal information, normally separated into different communication “codes” (Bucci, 1997a Bucci, W. (1997a), Symptoms and symbols: A multiple code theory of somatization. Psychoanal. Inq., 17: 151–172.[Taylor & Francis Online], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar]). This ancient myth’s longevity may be due to a useful psychological function; its images can aid the organizing of unformulated unconscious chaotic experience and assist in the process of bringing dissociated or preverbal emotions and moods into language. The utility of the Phoenix myth in a relational dialogical process that helps symbolize unsymbolized unconscious content could assist in work with other survivors of catastrophic loss.     

Is Disclosure of Sexual Traumas Helpful? Comparing Experimental Laboratory Versus Field Study Results

Disclosing trauma is generally viewed as beneficial for survivors, yet few studies have used experimental methods to determine whether disclosure of sexual traumas in particular has positive effects. This article compares and contrasts knowledge based on lab studies of sexual trauma disclosure using Pennebaker's (1997 Pennebaker, J. W. 1997. Writing about emotional experiences as a therapeutic process. Psychological Science, 8: 162–166. [Crossref], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar]) experimental disclosure paradigm with data from nonexperimental studies of sexual assault disclosure. The most surprising result was that unlike the majority of experimental trauma disclosure studies using Pennebaker's method that have typically shown positive effects of disclosure, both laboratory and field studies of sexual assault have not shown positive effects, particularly when victims receive negative responses from others. Future research on disclosure of sexual victimization should consider various mediators and moderators, which are suggested by existing findings, as well as a broader range of adjustment outcomes within an ecological framework.     

Relationships between quality of life,spiritual well-being,and psychological adjustment styles for people living with leukaemia: An exploratory study

This paper reports on the relationships between quality of life, spiritual well-being, and psychological adjustment styles for people living with leukaemia. Participants were 40 adults (26 women and 14 men) aged between 22 and 80 years living with acute or chronic leukaemia in Western Australia. Participants completed three scales measuring spiritual well-being (FACIT-Sp-12-C Version 4; Cella, 1997 Cella, D. 1997. “Functional Assessment of Chronic Illness Therapy (FACIT) Manual, Version 4”. In Chicago: Center on Outcomes Research and Education CORE, Evanston, Chicago: Northwestern Healthcare and Northwestern University.  [Google Scholar]), psychological adjustment styles (MAC; Watson, Greer, & Bliss, 1989 Watson, M, Greer, S and Bliss, JM. 1989. Mental Adjustment to Cancer (MAC) Scale: User's manual, London: CRC Psychological Medicine Research Group The Royal Marsden Hospital.  [Google Scholar]), and quality of life (FACIT-G; Cella, 1997 Cella, D. 1997. “Functional Assessment of Chronic Illness Therapy (FACIT) Manual, Version 4”. In Chicago: Center on Outcomes Research and Education CORE, Evanston, Chicago: Northwestern Healthcare and Northwestern University.  [Google Scholar]). No differences were found between the men and women participants, with the exception of the anxious preoccupation adjustment style. Significant positive correlations were found between spiritual well-being and quality of life (r?=?0.72, p?=?<0.01), and between fighting spirit and both spiritual well-being (r?=?0.55, p?<?0.01) and quality of life (r?=?0.67, p?<?0.01). Spiritual well-being and quality of life were both significantly negatively correlated with hopelessness/helplessness, fatalism, and anxious preoccupation, suggesting that people who are able to find meaning in their illness are more likely to utilize functional psychological adjustment styles. A stepwise multiple regression revealed that spiritual well-being was most strongly associated with quality of life for people living with leukaemia, followed by a fighting spirit; together, these accounted for 61% of the variance in quality of life scores. Thus, having a reason for living, making life more productive, finding comfort in faith or spiritual beliefs, being determined to control the environment, and feeling a sense of meaning, peace, harmony, purpose, and comfortable in oneself are factors that contribute to a better quality of life among patients with leukaemia. Strengths, limitations, and implications of the findings are discussed.     

Values,Rules, and Keeping the Peace: How Men Describe Order and the Inmate Code in California Prisons

For this article, I use interview data to examine how former male inmates describe how and why they follow the inmate code. Previous work shows that convicts use the code to structure and define informal rules (Bronson 2006 Bronson , Eric. 2006 . “Medium Security Prisons and Inmate Subcultures: The ‘Normal Prison’.” The Southwest Journal of Criminal Justice 3 ( 2 ): 61 – 86 . [Google Scholar]). I attempt to explore this issue from the other direction. I focus on how inmates describe informal rules and how the code may or may not fit into these rules. As Howard Becker (1963 Becker , Howard S. 1963 . Outsiders: Studies in the Sociology of Deviance . New York : The Free Press .[Crossref] , [Google Scholar]) points out, people in any society form groups and subcultures who create their own set of rules and norms. The men in my study describe leaders, called shot-callers, who focus on illegal businesses such as the drug trade. They use violence to control their own gangs in order to reduce the chance of riots. In short, they value peace and profit. This differs from previous work that focuses on the inmate identity and how convicts value the code. The men in my study value safety and the underground economy as well as maintaining a solid convict identity.     

Death and Black Diamonds: Meaning,Mortality, and the Meaning Maintenance Model

The Meaning Maintenance Model (MMM; Heine, Proulx, & Vohs, 2006 Heine, S. J., Proulx, T. and Vohs, K. D. 2006. The Meaning Maintenance Model: On the coherence of social motivation. Personality and Social Psychological Review, 10(2): 88–111. [Crossref], [PubMed], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar]) proposes that human beings innately and automatically assemble mental representations of expected relations. The sense of global meaning that these relations provide is regularly disrupted by unrelated or unrelatable experiences, which elicit feelings of meaninglessness. People respond to these disruptions by engaging in meaning maintenance to reestablish their sense of symbolic unity. Meaning maintenance often involves the compensatory reaffirmation of alternative meaning structures through a process termed fluid compensation. The MMM proposes a fundamental reinterpretation of the social psychological literature, arguing that meaning maintenance is a general mechanism that underlies a host of diverse psychological motivations, including self-esteem needs, certainty needs, and the need for symbolic immortality. In particular, the MMM stands in contrast to Terror Management Theory in that mortality salience is explained by the MMM to be one of many specific instantiations of threats to meaning that engenders fluid compensation.     

Psychoanalytic Healing,Love, Life,and Death: Commentary on Paper by Sheldon Bach

In his seminal clinical writings on psychoanalysis, Sheldon Bach transcends the limiting confines of individual and parochial schools of psychoanalysis. Both in “On Digital Consciousness” and in his 2006 Getting From There to Here: Analytic Love, Analytic Process, we see a strong relational dimension in Bach's work (see also Bach 1985 Bach, S. 1985. Narcissistic states and the therapeutic process, Northvale, NJ: Aronson.  [Google Scholar] and 1994), though he comes from firmly within the psychoanalytic mainstream. Bach's writings speak to clinicians across schools of thought, are clinically near to experience and are often moving. While he makes occasional mention of his contemporaries, Bach is grounded in more traditional references and only hints at his intellectual connection to relational and intersubjective theorists. One purpose of this commentary is to reflect on Bach's contribution to contemporary psychoanalysis and to draw out the connections between his work and the work of those within the broader relational and intersubjective community of psychoanalysis.     

The Impact of Homecoming Reception on the Adaptation of Peacekeepers Following Deployment

Not unlike combat soldiers, peacekeepers are at risk for the development of significant symptoms of posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD; Litz, Orsillo, Freidman, Ehlich, & Batres, 1997 Litz, B. T., Orsillo, S., Freidman, M., Ehlich, P., & Batres, A. (1997). Posttraumatic stress disorder associated with peacekeeping duty in Somalia for U.S. military personnel. American Journal of Psychiatry, 154, 178–184.[PubMed], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar]). Previous studies have demonstrated that the response of family and community members at homecoming has a significant restorative role in the adaptation of combat soldiers (e.g., Fontana & Rosenheck, 1994 American Psychiatric Association. (1994). Diagnostic and statistical manualfor mental disorders (4th ed.). Washington, DC: Author. [Google Scholar]). This study assesses this potential effect in the postdeployment adjustment of peacekeepers. As part of a larger investigation, 1,023 U.S. military personnel who served as peacekeepers in Somalia were administered a comprehensive psychosocial questionnaire that included measures of exposure to negative and potentially traumatic peacekeeping experiences, homecoming reception, and PTSD symptom severity. Adjustment to peacekeeping was positively related to homecoming reception.     

Parental Bullying,Aggression, and Assertion: A Philosophical and Psychoanalytic Revisioning of Frank Summers' Case of Anna

Historically, psychoanalysis has failed to differentiate adequately between aggression and assertion. It is uncontroversial to state that bullying is a form of aggression. However, if aggression and assertion are not adequately distinguished, bullying could also be viewed as a form of assertion. Some psychoanalysts have attempted to resolve this by using the terms aggression and assertion as synonyms but introducing the notion of nondestructive aggression. Bullying, then, is understood to be hostile aggression or hostile assertion. In this article, I aim to prepare psychoanalytic and philosophical groundwork for a meaningful differentiation between aggression and assertion, and, at the same time, to shed light on the nature of bullying, parental bullying in particular. To achieve these aims, I critique an aspect of the case material presented by Frank Summers in his (2005) Summers, F. 2005. Self Creation: Psychoanalytic Therapy and the Art of the Possible, Hillsdale, NJ: The Analytic Press.  [Google Scholar] book, Self Creation: Psychoanalytic Therapy and the Art of the Possible. I also critique Parens' (2008) Parens, H. 2008. The Development of Aggression in Early Childhood, Lanham, MD: Jason Aronson.  [Google Scholar] notion of nondestructive aggression as used by him and by Summers. Additionally, I discuss some of the philosophical notions Summers introduces and discusses relevant to a critique of his notion of the analyst's vision of the patient's development in its relevance to his case of Anna.     

Cross-notational semantic priming between symbolic and nonsymbolic numerosity

Symbolic and nonsymbolic numerosities produce similar behavioural effects and activate the same brain areas. These results have usually been interpreted in terms of a common, notation-independent magnitude representation. However, semantic priming between symbolic and nonsymbolic inputs has been somehow elusive (e.g., Koechlin, Naccache, Block, & Dehaene, 1999 Koechlin, E., Naccache, L., Block, E. and Dehaene, S. 1999. Primed numbers: Exploring the modularity of numerical representations with masked and unmasked semantic priming. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance, 25: 1882–1905. [Crossref], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar]). In Experiment 1, we looked at whether cross-notational semantic priming depends on exact numerical meaning. Dice faces and digits were mixed as prime and target. Semantic priming occurred when prime and target were in the same notation as much as when they were in different notation. In Experiment 2, we found cross-notation semantic priming even when the nonsymbolic numerosity was presented as a set of random dots. Priming, however, occurred only from sets of dots to digit, not vice versa. These data support the computational model recently proposed by Verguts and Fias (2004 Verguts, T. and Fias, W. 2004. Representation of number in animals and humans: A neural model. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 16: 1493–1504. [Crossref], [PubMed], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar]; Verguts, Fias, & Stevens, 2005 Verguts, T., Fias, W. and Stevens, M. 2005. A model of exact small-number representation. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 112: 66–80.  [Google Scholar]).     

Repetition Priming Across the Adult Lifespan—The Long and Short of It

ABSTRACT

Previous reports suggest that repetition priming (i.e., enhanced processing of a stimulus after experience with that stimulus) is long lasting and impervious to the effects of age, in contrast to the pattern found with explicit memory. However, the nature of repetition priming in aged individuals remains unclear, as conflicting findings have also been reported. We used a longitudinal design to examine how repetition priming is affected by multiple stimulus repetitions (three presentations) and different delay intervals (no delay, 1 day, 1 week, and 1 month) in young adults, as well as in two groups of aging adults (young-elderly and old-elderly). Our findings extend previous reports that priming is long lasting, even when 1 month intervenes between the initial experience with an item and the subsequent priming test of that item (Cave, 1997 Cave, C. B. 1997. Very long-lasting priming in picture naming. Psychological Science, 8: 322–325. [CSA][CROSSREF][Crossref], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar]), and is relatively impervious to the effects of age (Mitchell, et al., 1990 Mitchell, D. B., Brown, A. S. and Murphy, D. R. 1990. Dissociations between procedural and episodic memory: effects of time and aging. Psychology and Aging, 5: 264–276. [INFOTRIEVE][CSA][CROSSREF] [Google Scholar]). In addition, a more detailed characterization of priming and the effects of aging was revealed. Although priming is long lasting, remaining significant even at the month delay for all groups, it did decline over time and the rate of that decline differed with age. Both young-elderly and old-elderly groups showed a marked drop-off at 1 day, whereas young adults did not show a decline until 1 week. All groups benefited from multiple repetitions; however, this benefit disappeared at the month delay (in contrast to recognition memory, where the benefit remained significant). These findings support the assertion that repetition priming and explicit memory reflect the operation of distinct systems, and that these systems may undergo different rates of change in aging.     

Defining Trauma on Twitter: An Autoethnographic Sketch

In this paper, I use an autoethnographic sketch (Rambo, 2007 Rambo, C. (2007). Sketching as autoethnographic practice. Symbolic Interaction, 30(4), 531–542. doi:10.1525/si.2007.30.4.531[Crossref], [Web of Science ®] [Google Scholar]) to offer a definition of trauma. This paper is broadly inspired by my research (Gloviczki, 2015 Gloviczki, P. J. (2015). Journalism and memorialization in the age of social media. New York, NY: Palgrave Macmillan.[Crossref] [Google Scholar]) using case study methods (Yin, 2003 Yin, R. K. (2003). Case study research: Design and methods (Vol. 3). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. [Google Scholar]) about online memorial groups. In pairing autoethnography and case study methods, I write to inspire a discussion about form, definition, and trauma. I also embrace the challenge of writing an entire scholarly paper within 140 characters, the standard length of a tweet on Twitter. I hope this approach opens fresh avenues for understanding research as well.     

A closer look at moral dilemmas: Latent dimensions of morality and the difference between trolley and footbridge dilemmas

Although a distinction between moral-personal and moral-impersonal dilemmas (Greene, Sommerville, Nystrom, Darley, & Cohen, 2001 Greene, J. D., Sommerville, R. B., Nystrom, L. E., Darley, J. M. and Cohen, J. D. 2001. An fMRI investigation of emotional engagement in moral judgement. Science, 293: 2105–2108. doi:10.1126/science.1062872.[Crossref], [PubMed], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar]) has been widely accepted as an explanation for a difference between the trolley and footbridge dilemmas (Thomson, 1985 Thomson, J. J. 1985. “The trolley problem”. In Ethics: Problems and principles, Edited by: Fischer, J. M. and Ravizza, M. Fort Worth, TX: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich.  [Google Scholar]), its psychometric properties remain a mystery. In this study 219 participants completed 62 moral dilemma tasks used in Greene et al. (2001 Greene, J. D., Sommerville, R. B., Nystrom, L. E., Darley, J. M. and Cohen, J. D. 2001. An fMRI investigation of emotional engagement in moral judgement. Science, 293: 2105–2108. doi:10.1126/science.1062872.[Crossref], [PubMed], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar]), and the correlation structure among the dilemmas was analysed through factor analysis and structural equation modelling. Findings suggest that, first, moral-personal dilemmas are composed of one factor, indicating that the assumption in Greene et al. (2001 Greene, J. D., Sommerville, R. B., Nystrom, L. E., Darley, J. M. and Cohen, J. D. 2001. An fMRI investigation of emotional engagement in moral judgement. Science, 293: 2105–2108. doi:10.1126/science.1062872.[Crossref], [PubMed], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar]) was supported. Second, moral-impersonal dilemmas are explained by two factors that reflect procedural and consequential aspects of decision making. Third, the trolley and footbridge dilemmas fall under the same factor category; therefore the difference between the two dilemmas cannot be attributed to emotional involvement. Additionally, the results of the structural equation modelling suggest that they differ in the engagement of rational processing.     

“I'm Sorry,Please Don't Hurt Me”: Effectiveness of Apologies on Aggression Control

ABSTRACT

The author attempted to replicate Ohbuchi, Kameda, and Agarie's (1989 Ohbuchi, K., Kameda, M and Agarie, N. 1989. Apology as aggression control: Its role in mediating appraisal of and response to harm. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 56: 219–227. [Crossref], [PubMed], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar]) study which found that giving an apology, with or without harm removal, reduced aggressive responses among a sample of Japanese college women. The author found similiar results with a U.S. sample of college women. The results provide evidence for cross-cultural similiarity in the effectiveness of apologies in reducing aggressive responses.     

Feminism,Therapy, and Changing the World

ABSTRACT

In this essay, Miriam Greenspan reviews her life’s work as an early pioneer of Feminist Therapy, the influence of her birth in a displaced person’s camp to parents who were Holocaust survivors, and her development as a feminist, social activist, and psychotherapist. She discusses her most influential works, including A New Approach to Women & Therapy (1983 Greenspan, M. (1983). A new approach to women & therapy. New York: McGraw Hill. [Google Scholar], 1993 Greenspan, M. (1993). A new approach to women & therapy (10th anniversary ed.). New York: McGraw Hill. [Google Scholar]) and Healing Through the Dark Emotions: The Wisdom of Grief, Fear, and Despair (2003 Greenspan, M. (2003). Healing through the dark emotions: The wisdom of grief, fear, and despair. Boston: Shambhala. [Google Scholar]). She concludes with a look back at her own spiritual evolution, her assessment of the ultimate contribution of Feminist Therapy to society, the need for a wide model of therapy that incorporates the political and spiritual dimensions of experience, and the challenges that psychology and psychotherapy face in an age of global threat.     

Immediate Psychological Impact of the Deepwater Horizon Oil Spill: Symptoms of PTSD and Coping Skills

Five hundred eighty-eight participants completed the Short Post Traumatic Stress Disorder Rating Interview (SPRINT; Connor &; Davidson, 2001 Connor, K. and Davidson, J. 2001. SPRINT: A brief global assessment of post-traumatic stress disorder. International Clinical Psychopharmacology, 16(5): 279–284. [Crossref], [PubMed], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar]) and the Brief COPE (Carver, 1997 Carver, C. S. 1997. You want to measure coping but your protocol's too long: Consider the Brief COPE. International Journal of Behavioral Medicine, 4(1): 92–100. [Crossref], [PubMed], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar]) to determine the psychological impacts and coping styles of the Deepwater Horizon Oil Spill on Gulf Coast residents. Participants were divided into at-risk and nonrisk groups based on their occupations. Results indicated that 28% of the respondents scored above the SPRINT cutoff score, indicating significant levels of posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) symptoms. Furthermore, the Brief COPE results revealed that the at-risk group showed a negative correlation between active coping and the level of PTSD-related symptoms. The at-risk respondents also showed negative correlations of PTSD-related symptoms with coping strategies such as acceptance, planning, positive reframing, humor, and religion. Future research directions are also discussed.     

Leading yourself and leading others: Linking self-leadership to transformational,transactional, and laissez-faire leadership

It has often been proposed that one must lead oneself before being able to lead others (e.g., Drucker, 1999 Drucker, P. 1999. Managing oneself. Harvard Business Review, : March–April, 65–74.  [Google Scholar]; Manz & Sims, 1991 Manz, C. C. and Sims, H. P. Jr. 1991. Superleadership: Beyond the myth of heroic leadership. Organizational Dynamics, 19: 18–35. [Crossref], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar]; Pearce, 2007 Pearce, C. L. 2007. The future of leadership development: The importance of identity, multi-level approaches, self-leadership, physical fitness, shared leadership, networking, creativity, emotions, spirituality and on-boarding processes. Human Resource Management Review, 17: 355–359. [Crossref] , [Google Scholar]). In two studies, we empirically investigated associations among self-leadership (with subfacets) and the full range leadership model (transformational, transactional, laissez-faire leadership) in N = 447 professionals with leadership experience (Study 1) and N = 35 leaders with N = 151 followers (Study 2). In both studies, leaders' self-leadership was positively associated with active styles of leading (transformational and transactional leadership) and negatively with passive styles of leading (laissez-faire leadership), as indicated by self- and follower-reports. These relationships remained even after controlling for sex, age, and leadership experience. Overall, data support the notion that effectively leading oneself is associated with effectively leading others.     

Preference reversals are diminished when gambles are presented as relative frequencies

Preference reversals are a well-documented example of suboptimal decision making. Typical preference reversals experiments have involved monetary bets presented in probability format. Research on other examples of decision making have shown that irrational or suboptimal choices are diminished or eliminated entirely when the probabilities are presented as relative frequencies (e.g., Gigerenzer & Hoffrage, 1995 Gigerenzer, G. and Hoffrage, U. 1995. How to improve Bayesian reasoning without instruction: Frequency formats. Psychological Review, 102: 684–704. [Crossref], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar]). The aim of the present experiment was to determine if the way in which information is presented to participants affects participants' preferences. When the options were presented in the standard probability format 59% of participants' preferences were reversed. However, reversals were significantly decreased in the frequency format group, with only 40% of participants' responses being inconsistent. Although preference reversals were not eliminated when the gambles were presented as frequencies they were significantly diminished and may not be such a robust example of irrational decision making after all.     

A Commentary on Charles Goodwin's Co-Operative Action for Learning Scientists

ABSTRACT

This commentary summarizes the argument Charles Goodwin presents in Co-Operative Action (Co-A, 2018 Goodwin, C. (2018). Co-operative action. New York, NY: Cambridge University Press. [Google Scholar]), his most recent book. Through exploration of the breadth of conceptual and methodological tools that he has built over the course of his career and represents in this book, we suggest paths forward for Learning Sciences towards engaging in more equitable and relational research.     

The effects of source trustworthiness and inference type on human belief revision

We investigated whether people revise their beliefs as a function of inference type or source trustworthiness. By doing so we aimed to find out if belief revision is better explained by mental model theory (Johnson-Laird & Byrne, 2002 Johnson-Laird, P. N. and Byrne, R. M. J. 2002. Conditionals: A theory of meaning, pragmatics, and inference. Psychological Review, 109: 211–228. [Crossref], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar]) or by a conditional probability view (Evans, Handley, & Over, 2003 Over, D. E. and Evans, J. St. B. T. 2003. The probability of conditionals: The psychological evidence. Mind & Language, 18: 340–358. [Crossref], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar]; Oaksford & Chater, 2001 Oaksford, M. and Chater, N. 2001. The probabilistic approach to human reasoning. Trends in Cognitive Science, 5: 349–357. [Crossref], [PubMed], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar]). We used modified modes ponens (MP) and modus tollens (MT) problems in which the first two premises were uttered by persons with varying degrees of trustworthiness. A third statement was presented as a fact and established inconsistency in the set of propositions. The participants' task was to indicate which of the first two premises they believed more after receiving the fact. We found that the belief in the conditional premise dropped significantly when this premise was stated by a low- rather than a high-trustworthy source. Moreover we found that the conditional premise was believed more in MT than in MP problems. Both findings are best explained by the conditional probability hypothesis (e.g., Evans et al., 2003 Evans, J. St. B. T., Handley, S. J. and Over, D. E. 2003. Conditionals and conditional probability. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 29, : 321–335. [Crossref] , [Google Scholar]).