Applying organizational justice theory to admission into higher education: Admission from a student perspective

Applicant perceptions of methods used in admission procedures to higher education were investigated using organizational justice theory. Applicants to a psychology study program completed a questionnaire about several admission methods. General favorability, ratings on justice dimensions, relationships between general favorability and these dimensions, and differences in perceptions based on gender and on the aim of the admission procedure (selection or matching) were studied. In addition, the relationship between favorability and test performance, and the relationship between favorability and behavioral outcomes were investigated. Applicants rated interviews and trial‐studying tests most favorably. Contrary to expectations based on the existing literature, high school grades were perceived least favorably and there was no relationship between applicant perceptions and enrollment decisions. In line with previous research in the employment literature, general favorability was most strongly related to face validity, study‐relatedness, applicant differentiation, the chance to show skills, perceived scientific evidence, and perceived wide‐spread use. We found no differences in applicant perceptions based on gender and small differences based on the aim of admission procedures. These results extend the applicant perceptions literature to educational admission and the results are useful for administrators when choosing methods to admit students.     

Consequences of organizational justice expectations in a selection system

This study examined several consequences of applicants' expectations of organizational justice at multiple stages in a selection process. The authors assessed the justice expectations of 1,832 job applicants prior to their participation in a testing process and examined how these expectations influenced their pretest attitudes and intentions as well as their perceptions of the testing process. Results revealed that applicants with higher expectations of justice reported higher levels of pretest motivation and more positive job acceptance and recommendation intentions. Justice expectations were also positively related to applicants' perceptions of justice in the testing process. Results provided some evidence that justice expectations have a moderating influence, such that justice perceptions have a greater influence on applicants' affective and cognitive states when expectations of justice are high. The theoretical and practical implications of these findings are discussed in the context of research on organizational justice and applicant perceptions.     

The Effect of Selection Ratio on Perceptions of the Fairness of a Selection Test Battery

This research examined the effects of the selection ratio on applicants’ perceptions of the fairness of a battery of tests. These fairness perceptions were also examined to assess whether they moderated the validity of the tests. A laboratory study was undertaken to examine the effects of the selection ratio on applicants going through a selection process and to examine the effects of being hired or rejected. Results revealed that the selection ratio did not have an effect on perceptions, but that hired individuals perceived greater distributive fairness. Furthermore, attitudes towards the cognitive ability test moderated the validity of the cognitive ability test, but attitudes toward the personality test did not moderate the validity of the personality test.     

THE EFFECTS OF APPLICANTs' REACTIONS TO COGNITIVE ABILITY TESTS AND AN ASSESSMENT CENTER

Manufacturing applicants' perceptions of two selection devices were examined. In Study 1, applicants ( n = 3,984) completed cognitive ability tests and a survey of reactions. In Study 2, a subset of applicants from Study 1 ( n = 194) participated in an assessment center and completed the survey. Applicants reacted favorably to the procedures but viewed the assessment center as more face valid than the cognitive tests. Applicants who perceived the selection techniques more favorably were also more satisfied with the selection process, the job, and the organization. Although applicants' perceptions of the procedures were related to job acceptance intentions, applicants' liking of the job and organization explained the largest unique variance. In future studies, applicants' job acceptance intentions and attitudes toward the job and organization should be assessed before and after administration of selection devices; not controlling for prior impressions resulted in overestimation of the contribution of applicants' perceptions of selection procedures.     

Perceptions of Overt and Personality-based Integrity Tests

Differences in test-taker perceptions between overt and personality-based integrity tests were examined. Following administration of both types of integrity tests, 255 undergraduate students provided ratings of perceived face validity and perceived predictive validity. Following receipt of actual test scores, 126 test takers participated in a second phase of the study in which they reported perceptions of distributive justice. Test takers perceived overt integrity tests as having greater face validity and predictive validity than personality-based integrity tests. Perceptions of job-relatedness were not strongly related to test performance on either test type. Distributive justice perceptions were related to test performance, but not type of integrity test.     

Applicant Reactions in Selection: Comprehensive meta‐analysis into reaction generalization versus situational specificity

This paper reports a comprehensive quantitative summary into applicant reactions to popular methods of employee selection. A detailed search of published and unpublished studies resulted in a final sample (k) of 38 independent samples covering 10 popular candidate assessment methods. Applicant reactions primary studies included samples from 17 countries internationally. Counter to previous suggestions for the situational specificity of applicant reactions, findings showed considerable similarity supporting the reaction generalizability hypothesis. Reaction favorability was structurally similar across countries and revealed a three‐tier clustering of overall favorability perceptions –most preferred (work samples, interviews), favorably evaluated (resumes, cognitive tests, references, biodata, personality inventories), and least preferred (honesty tests, personal contacts, graphology). Some differences in applicant reactions to dimension‐specific perceptions were found, however. Further analyses revealed strong positive correlations between favorability ratings and their validity and international usage. Implications for future research and ramifications for practice are considered in conclusion.     

Perceptions of Justice in Employment Selection Decisions: The Role of Applicant Gender

In contrast to the vast majority of justice literature that controls for applicant gender, the present study investigated the role of applicant gender in relation to applicant procedural and distributive justice perceptions after being informed of an organization's reject/accept decision. A sample of 503 students completed a selection test, believing the results would be used to make initial selection decisions for an organization recruiting from a university. Two weeks later, participants were given selection decisions (randomly assigned), and procedural and distributive justice perceptions were assessed. Hierarchical regression analyses indicated gender moderated the relationship between selection decision favorability and organizational justice perceptions. As hypothesized, in comparison with rejected males, rejected female applicants reacted most negatively to both forms of justice. On the other hand, selected female applicants had a more positive reaction than selected male applicants to both procedural and distributive justice. Potential implications for these and other findings are discussed.     

Marital Status Bias in Perceptions of Employees

Three studies documented effects of marital status on perceptions of employees or prospective employees. In Experiment 1, participants rated a married female job applicant as less suitable for employment than a single counterpart. In Experiment 2, participants again perceived a female job applicant less favorably when she was married; in contrast, a male applicant was perceived more favorably when married. In Experiment 3, participants predicted that a recently married woman's job performance and dedication would decline, whereas a recently married man's dedication was predicted to rise; this difference made participants more willing to lay off the woman than the man.     

The Role of Attributions and Fairness in Understanding Job Applicant Reactions to Selection Procedures and Decisions

Purpose

Drawing mainly upon Applicant Attribution-Reaction Theory (AART), we clarify and underscore the role of attribution dimensions (personal control, external control, and stability) in forming applicant fairness perceptions, attitudes, and behavioral reactions.

Design/Methodology/Approach

Students seeking (or about to seek) jobs (N = 264) participated in an experimental study in which procedural justice rules and outcome favorability (selected or rejected) were manipulated. Participants reported their attributions, fairness perceptions, and behavioral intentions. Hypotheses were tested through SEM and bootstrapping.

Findings

Applicant attributions were predicted by outcome favorability and the extent to which the interview process satisfied/violated procedural justice rules. In line with AART, process fairness perceptions mediated relationships between applicant attribution dimensions and both organizational perceptions and behavioral intentions.

Implications

Organizations should satisfy justice rules in employee selection processes because such rules affect applicant attributions, which in turn predict perceptions and behavioral intentions. In addition to identifying antecedents and consequences of fairness perceptions, antecedents and consequences of applicant attributions should be investigated, as both relate to important organizational outcomes.

Originality/Value

This study is one of a very few to test propositions from AART. Through an experimental design of high internal validity, we show that outcome favorability and the satisfaction/violation of justice rules predict job applicant attributions (personal control, external control, and stability). We further show that applicants’ attributions explain unique variance in their perceptions of the employing organization and in their behavioral intentions (e.g., recommend organization to others; litigate) beyond that explained by selection outcome and fairness perceptions.     

Cross‐cultural Examination of Applicant Reactions to Selection Methods: United States and Vietnam

The current study explored the differences in applicant reactions to various selection methods in the United States and in Vietnam, an emerging economy that has been generally ignored in the selection and assessment literatures. College students (n = 376) from the United States and Vietnam rated the favorability of 10 selection methods and indicated the bases for their reactions on eight process fairness dimensions. Results showed that interviews and work sample tests were perceived most favorably, while personal contacts and graphology were perceived least favorably in both countries. Face validity of the selection methods was found to be the strongest predictor of process favorability in both countries. In addition, the results indicated substantial differences between the two countries in terms of the perceived interpersonal warmth of selection methods and a perceived employer's right to obtain information using the selection methods. Implications of the findings for multinational corporations and future research directions are discussed.     

The Role of Person Characteristics in Perceptions of the Validity of Cognitive Ability Testing

Individuals vary in how they perceive cognitive ability tests; thus, it is useful for organizations to consider how individual differences influence applicant perceptions of selection tools. The present study examined the influence of implicit theories of ability and locus of control on perceptions of face validity and predictive validity for two cognitive ability tests. Relationships between perceptions and test experience, job‐relevant experience, and job familiarity were also examined. Interactions between implicit theories and self‐assessed performance in predicting perceptions were found, although not of the form hypothesized. Furthermore, job familiarity and prior success in selection contexts were related to perceptions. Finally, sample type interacted with test type to influence perceptions. Implications for selection system design and research on applicant perceptions are discussed.     

Fairness Reactions to Selection Methods: An Italian study

This study examined the fairness reactions to 10 personnel selection methods in a sample of Italian students. University students (N=137) were asked to rate the favorability of these selection procedures and then to evaluate them on eight procedural justice dimensions. Work‐sample tests were the most favorably rated of the selection methods, followed by résumés, written ability tests, interviews and personal references. Graphology was perceived negatively. Opportunity to perform and the perceived face validity of selection procedures were the strongest procedural justice dimensions for predicting the process favorability ratings. The results of this study are compared with those from similar studies conducted in other countries. Similar results have been found in the various countries where such research has been conducted to date.     

Perceived fairness in employee selection: the role of applicant personality

The present study investigated the role of applicant personality in relation to applicant procedural and distributive justice perceptions after being informed of an organization’s reject/accept selection decision. A sample of 503 students completed a selection test, believing the results would be used to make initial selection decisions for an organization recruiting from the university. Participants were presented with selection decisions (randomly assigned) two weeks later, and procedural and distributive justice perceptions were assessed. Hierarchical regression analyses indicated that agreeableness, openness to experience, and test-taking self-efficacy were positively related with perceptions of procedural and distributive justice. Neuroticism was negatively associated with distributive justice perceptions. The relationships of test-taking self-efficacy with procedural and distributive justice were moderated by the organization’s selection decision.     

人事选拔中的应聘者反应研究述评

应聘者反应是个体在选拔情境下由公平知觉导致的一种针对组织的态度或行为后果.应聘者反应的首个理论模型是Gilliland的选拔公正模型,随后,启发模型、整合模型和信任模型相继建立,极大丰富了应聘者反应的理论内涵.然而,应聘者反应的测量明显滞后于理论的发展,主要表现在测量工具不统一、测量结构混乱、信效度研究匮乏等方面.未来的研究方向有:(1)加强现有模型中论证不充分的环节;(2)进一步丰富跨文化研究;(3)从一般性问题向特定情境的研究进行深入;(4)结合跨领域内容,朝着多元化的方向发展.     

Applicant Race, Job Status, and Racial Attitude as Predictors of Employment Discrimination

It is important to understand why biased employee selection occurs in the workplace. We examined applicant race, job status, and the evaluator's attitudes toward blacks as possible predictors of unfair selection decisions. After completing an attitude toward blacks scale, one hundred and eighty-one people evaluated the qualifications of either a black or white applicant for either a high or low status job. Results showed no differences in the hiring decision. However, evaluators with more negative attitudes toward blacks reported greater confidence in their decision to hire the black applicant than the white applicant for the low status job compared to the confidence of evaluators with more positive attitudes. They also reported greater confidence in their decision to hire the white applicant than the black applicant for the high status job as compared to evaluators with more positive attitudes towards blacks. We observed the opposite results for less biased individuals. Evaluator ratings do not explain these findings. These data suggest that unfair discrimination may operate in subtle ways.     

Emotional Intelligence in Personnel Selection: Applicant reactions,criterion, and incremental validity

In two studies, based on four samples and more than 600 participants, the authors examined applicant reactions, criterion and incremental validity, and differential prediction of emotional intelligence (EI) in personnel selection using the Mayer–Salovey–Caruso Emotional Intelligence Test. The first study examined applicant reactions in terms of face validity and fairness evaluation of the EI test. The second study examined across three samples (salespeople, front‐desk public employees, and hospital chief executive officers) the criterion validity, incremental validity, and differential prediction of EI. Results suggest that the EI test is perceived as a fair selection tool, and is predictive of performance. The EI test has incremental validity over cognitive abilities and personality (big five) when predicting subjective and objective performance criteria. Based on these results, the authors encourage further research on the use of EI in selection settings.     

Applicant attraction to organizations and job choice: a meta-analytic review of the correlates of recruiting outcomes

Attracting high-performing applicants is a critical component of personnel selection and overall organizational success. In this study, the authors meta-analyzed 667 coefficients from 71 studies examining relationships between various predictors with job-organization attraction, job pursuit intentions, acceptance intentions, and job choice. The moderating effects of applicant gender, race, and applicant versus nonapplicant status were also examined. Results showed that applicant attraction outcomes were predicted by job-organization characteristics, recruiter behaviors, perceptions of the recruiting process, perceived fit, and hiring expectancies, but not recruiter demographics or perceived alternatives. Path analyses showed that applicant attitudes and intentions mediated the predictor-job choice relationships. The authors discuss the implications of these findings for recruiting theory, research, and practice.     

Personality Types and Applicant Reactions in Real‐life Selection

The study aimed to determine if an applicant's personality type is associated with his/her reactions (fairness perceptions, face validity perceptions, and predictive validity perceptions) to the selection process. The participants (N = 258) were real‐life applicants for admission to a vocational school. A person‐centered approach was applied to find subgroups with similar personality profiles. Latent profile analysis found four personality types: Resilient (45%), Overcontrolled (13%), Undercontrolled (10%), and Bohemian (32%). The Resilient and Bohemian personality types had more favorable perceptions of test fairness than the Overcontrolled type. Personality type did not affect face validity or predictive validity perceptions. The results suggest that personality (type) could be included in applicant reactions models and in analyses investigating the antecedents of applicant reactions.     

Perceived Job Relatedness of Physical Ability Testing for Firefighters: Exploring Variations in Reactions

Although increasing research attention is being directed at applicant reactions to selection processes, little work has been directed at perceptions of physical abilities testing. This study examined the perceived job relatedness of physical abilities tests. Experience, self-efficacy, and consistency of test administration were found to be related to perceptions of job relevance. Implications for selection system design are discussed.