Differentiating anxious,aggressive, and socially competent preschool children: validation of the Social Competence and Behavior Evaluation-30 (parent version)

The present study examined the factor structure, internal consistency, and construct validity of the parent version of the Social Competence and Behavior Evaluation-30 for preschoolers (SCBE-30; LaFreniere, P. J. (1990). Social competence and behavior evaluation-30. Unpublished measure.), an adaptation of the validated teacher version of the same measure (LaFreniere & Dumas, Psychol. Asses. 8 (1996) 369). The parent version of the SCBE-30 is a 30-item Likert rating scale questionnaire designed to assess patterns of anxiety/withdrawal, anger/aggression, and social competence. Principal components analysis was used to identify the factor structure of the parent version of the SCBE-30 (N = 218 preschool children). To assess construct validity, a compliance task was utilized to determine whether children identified as high on anxiety/withdrawal, anger/aggression, or social competence with the parent version of the SCBE-30 (n = 20 for each group) could be distinguished behaviorally on several observational variables. Principal components analysis identified three factors accounting for 44% of the variance. Ten items positively loaded onto each factor and matched conceptual expectations. A between-subjects MANOVA demonstrated significant group differences in observed child behaviors including compliance, noncompliance, subtypes of noncompliance, and aversive behavior. Results of the current study suggested that the parent version of the SCBE-30 demonstrated both internal consistency and construct validity, and findings paralleled many of the results from LaFreniere and Dumas' validation of the teacher version of the SCBE-30.     

Mapping gray matter development: Implications for typical development and vulnerability to psychopathology

Recent studies with brain magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) have scanned large numbers of children and adolescents repeatedly over time, as their brains develop, tracking volumetric changes in gray and white matter in remarkable detail. Focusing on gray matter changes specifically, here we explain how earlier studies using lobar volumes of specific anatomical regions showed how different lobes of the brain matured at different rates. With the advent of more sophisticated brain mapping methods, it became possible to chart the dynamic trajectory of cortical maturation using detailed 3D and 4D (dynamic) models, showing spreading waves of changes evolving through the cortex. This led to a variety of time-lapse films revealing characteristic deviations from normal development in schizophrenia, bipolar illness, and even in siblings at genetic risk for these disorders. We describe how these methods have helped clarify how cortical development relates to cognitive performance, functional recovery or decline in illness, and ongoing myelination processes. These time-lapse maps have also been used to study effects of genotype and medication on cortical maturation, presenting a powerful framework to study factors that influence the developing brain.     

An integrative framework for psychopathology and psychotherapy

This article presents an integrative framework for psychopathology and psychotherapy. The framework differs in kind from previous ones in that it is entirely pre-empirical (specifically, conceptual and logical) in character and does not represent an attempt to create a new empirical theory (cf. Newton's pre-empirical creation of a new conceptual system, which creation proved a necessary precondition for his subsequent empirical contentions). The present integration is accomplished in three parts. In the first of these, a definition of pathology as behavioral disability or functional impairment is presented and defended. In the second, this definition is used as a centerpiece to achieve a logical unification of many prominent explanations of psychopathology that are at present widely considered to be theoretically divergent and incompatible. In part three, established forms of intervention from our most influential schools of psychotherapy are shown to be both conceptually coherent and compatible in practice within the present overarching framework.     

Assessment of psychopathology across and within cultures: issues and findings

Research based information on the impact of culture on psychopathology is reviewed, with particular reference to depression, somatization, schizophrenia, anxiety, and dissociation. A number of worldwide constants in the incidence and mode of expression of psychological disorders are identified, especially in relation to schizophrenia and depression. The scope of variation of psychopathological manifestations across cultures is impressive. Two tasks for future investigations involve the determination of the generic relationship between psychological disturbance and culture and the specification of links between cultural characteristics and psychopathology. To this end, hypotheses are advanced pertaining to the cultural dimensions investigated by Hofstede and their possible reflection in psychiatric symptomatology. It is concluded that the interrelationship of culture and psychopathology should be studied in context and that observer, institution, and community variables should be investigated together with the person's experience of distress and disability.     

Revised Reinforcement Sensitivity Theory: Implications for psychopathology and psychological health

We examined the utility of revised Reinforcement Sensitivity Theory (r-RST) in comparison with original Reinforcement Sensitivity Theory (o-RST) in further understanding psychopathology and well-being. In line with theory, we found o-BIS to be a non-specific predictor of anxiety and stress whereas r-BIS and r-FFFS scales were predictors of anxiety and stress. Consistent with the joint systems hypothesis, depression was associated with r-BIS, but only when r-BAS was low. The r-BAS, low o-BIS and low r-Freeze were the only predictors of psychological well-being. These findings suggest that r-BAS as we measured it reflects more functional approach behaviour than measures of o-BAS. Further, while o-BIS appears to be associated with broad negative affective states, the parsing of r-BIS from fear potentially provides r-RST with a more refined understanding of psychopathology and reduced well-being.     

Response inhibition and measures of psychopathology: a dimensional analysis.

On the basis of Quay's (1988a, 1988b, 1993, 1997) model in which the Behavioral Inhibition System (BIS) and the Behavioral Activation System (BAS) are linked to various forms of child psychopathology, predictions were made regarding the relation between inhibitory control and two dimensions of psychopathology: externalizing and internalizing behavior. Inhibitory control was measured using two versions of Logan and Cowan's stop signal paradigm (1984; Logan, Cowan, & Davis, 1984; Osman, Kornblum, & Meyer, 1986, 1990). The primary outcome measure for the stop tasks was stop signal reaction time (SSRT) which measures the latency of the inhibition process. A positive relationship was predicted for externalizing behavior, whereas a negative relationship was predicted for internalizing behavior. A total of 42 non-clinical elementary school children, in the age range of 6 to 12 years, participated in the study. Externalizing behavior was positively related to response inhibition. Symptoms of ADHD seem to be better at predicting inhibitory functioning than symptoms of aggressive behavior disorders. Some support was found for a negative relation between internalizing behavior and inhibitory control. These findings support Quay's model and the discriminant validity of inhibitory control with regard to externalizing and internalizing behavior.     

Establishing construct validity for Openness-to-Experience in middle childhood: Contributions from personality and temperament

Controversy exists over the validity of child Openness-to-Experience (OE). To establish construct validity for child OE, data were collected for 346 children (51% girls) aged 9-to-10-years (M = 9.92, SD = 0.83). Parents completed questionnaires about their children’s personality, temperament, and behavioral problems and competencies. Factor analyses of relevant personality and temperament facets revealed a robust OE factor made up of three facets: Intellect, Imagination, and Sensitivity. Evidence for convergent and discriminant validity was established via associations with other personality traits, and behavioral problems and competencies. Results underscore the importance of drawing from both temperament and personality literatures in attempts to establish construct validity for child trait domains as well as examining facet-level associations between OE and child behavior.     

Event memory and suggestibility in abused and neglected children: trauma-related psychopathology and cognitive functioning

This study examined event memory and suggestibility in 3- to 16-year-olds involved in forensic investigations of child maltreatment. A total of 322 children were interviewed about a play activity with an unfamiliar adult. Comprehensive measures of individual differences in trauma-related psychopathology and cognitive functioning were administered. Sexually and/or physically abused children obtained higher dissociation scores than neglected children, and sexually abused children were more likely to obtain a diagnosis of posttraumatic stress disorder than physically abused children, neglected children, and children with no substantiated abuse histories. Overall, older children and children with better cognitive functioning produced more correct information and fewer memory errors. Abuse status per se did not significantly predict children’s memory or suggestibility whether considered alone or in interaction with age. However, among highly dissociative children, more trauma symptoms were associated with greater inaccuracy, whereas trauma symptoms were not associated with increased error for children who were lower in dissociative tendencies. Implications of the findings for understanding eyewitness memory in maltreated children are discussed.     

Race and gender matter: a multidimensional approach to conceptualizing and measuring stress in African American women

Based on prior research and theory, the authors constructed a multidimensional model of stress in African American women comprised of race-related, gender-related, and generic stress. Exposure to and appraisal of these three types of stress were combined into a higher-order global stress factor. Using structural equation modeling, the fit of this stress factor and its ability to predict distress symptoms were examined in 189 socioeconomically diverse African American women aged 21 to 78. Results support the multidimensional conceptualization and operationalization of stress. Race-related, gender-related, and generic stress contributed equally to the global stress factor, and global stress predicted a significant amount of variance in distress symptoms and intensity. This model exhibited better fit than a model without a global stress factor, in which each stress component predicted distress directly. Furthermore, race-related, gender-related, and generic stress did not contribute to distress beyond their representation in the global stress factor. These findings illustrate that stress related to central elements of identity, namely race and gender, cohere with generic stress to define the stress experience of African American women.     

Toward a cognitive-behavioral model of child psychopathology and a critique of related interventions

A cognitive- behavioral model recognizes the interdependencies of cognitive, affective, social, developmental, and behavioral factors in the etiology and remediation of childhood psychopathology. The model is concerned with the cognitive distortions and deficiencies that surround behavioral events and emphasizes the combination of treatment strategies with the therapist as a remediation organizer. Recommendations are made regarding treatment expectations, the specificity of the cognition-disorder relationship, the quality of the application of the training, and the need for further involvement of the child in the therapeutic curriculum.Portions of this paper were adapted from an address given at the Instituto Nacional De Salud Mental Honorio Delgado-Hideyo Noguchi, Lima, Peru, December 1984. Portions were also presented as part of a colloquium at Rutgers University. I wish to thank Kelly Bemis for her helpful comments on an earlier draft of this paper.     

Interpersonal perception and personality disorders: Utilization of a thin slice approach

Study 1 expands upon previous research by looking at the ability of untrained raters to detect pathological traits within a normal population of college students. In Study 1, 30-s video clips of 81 target persons were shown to 42 raters. Ratings of traits of personality disorders made by thin slice raters reliably predicted scores on the personality pathology measures obtained from the targets themselves and from close peers. Study 2 is a preliminary examination of how pathological rater traits impacts thin slice accuracy. In Study 2, peer and self-report data were examined regarding 87 thin slice raters. Raters who exhibited traits of narcissistic personality disorder were significantly less accurate in making personality predictions regarding targets. Three clusters of personality items were identified based on rater characteristics related to accuracy in predicting behavior.     

Model building in developmental psychopathology: a pragmatic approach to understanding and intervention

Proposes model building as a pragmatic and integrative approach to developmental psychopathology. The model-building process is iterative within a program of research, cycling through the following phases of research: theory, field observation, construct definition, measurement development, construct analysis, model testing, experimental field trials, and model revision. Research on the development of and interventions for antisocial behavior is discussed as a tool for reflecting on the model-building process. The ecological framework is offered as a science-based heuristic that integrates various levels of analysis and theoretical perspectives.     

Writing and reading skills as assessed by teachers in 7-year olds: A behavioral genetic approach

A behavioral genetic analysis of general writing ability was conducted using teacher assessments based on UK National Curriculum criteria for a sample of 3296 same-sex pairs of 7-year-old twins. Writing was highly heritable within the normal range (0.66) and at the low extreme (0.70). Environmental influences were almost all non-shared, with shared environmental estimates negligible (0.07 normal range, 0.06 low extreme). Bivariate genetic analyses of teacher assessments of writing and reading indicated that 69% of the genetic influences on writing were in common with those on reading, and that the two skills shared all of their shared environmental influences. In contrast, non-shared environmental factors are largely specific, with 86% independent of those on reading.     

Short-term predictive validity of cluster analytic and dimensional classification of child behavioral adjustment in school

A constructive debate over the classification of child psychopathology can be stimulated by investigating the validity of different classification approaches. We examined and compared the short-term predictive validity of cluster analytic and dimensional classifications of child behavioral adjustment in school using the Behavior Assessment System for Children (BASC; [Reynolds, C. R., and Kamphaus, R. W. (1992). Behavior Assessment System for Children (BASC). Circle Pines, MN: AGS.]) Teacher Rating Scales for Children (TRS-C). We cluster analyzed 14 dimensional scores of children's behavior in first grade and identified seven clusters. Then we examined the predictive power of the dimensions and the clusters using a variety of school outcomes in second grade, including academic achievement scores in reading and math, absenteeism, discipline reports, and participation rates in pre-referral intervention. Both methods significantly predicted all school outcomes with similar magnitudes of effect sizes, but the dimensional approach was more powerful in predicting the outcomes except pre-referral intervention. Moreover, coherent group differences in the clusters were identified with respect to the school outcomes. This latter finding may suggest differentiated prognoses of cluster membership. The implications for future validation studies of alternative classification systems of child behavioral adjustment are discussed.     

Psychometric Status and Clinical Utility of the MAYSI-2 with Girls and Boys in Juvenile Detention

This study replicates and extends studies of the Massachusetts Youth Screening Instrument, Version 2 (MAYSI-2) in a sample of 479 urban, rural, and suburban 12–16 year old youths (68% boys; 41% African American, 23% Latino) consecutively admitted to juvenile detention centers. Six principal components replicated the MAYSI-2 factor-analytically-derived subscales except for Depression/Anxiety, and suggested modifications of specific items in each sub-scale. Findings supported the internal consistency and validity of the modified MAYSI-2 sub-scales. Few gender differences emerged, except that girls reported higher levels of hopelessness and trauma than boys. Five sub-groups were identified based on component profiles: (1) non-clinical, (2) addiction, somatic problems, and suicidality, (3) anger problems, (4) thought disturbance, and (5) addiction and traumatic stress. The findings support the validity of the MAYSI-2 for juvenile justice mental health screening while highlighting possible refinements in scoring in order to identify delinquent youths with distinctive psychosocial risks and needs.     

Temperament and Vulnerability to Psychopathology: Introduction to the Special Section

Several authors have highlighted associations with temperament as promising avenues for understanding vulnerability to psychopathology (e.g., Muris and Ollendick, Clinical Child and Family Psychology Review, 8, 271–289, 2005; Nigg, Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, and Allied Disciplines, 47, 395–422, 2006). The successful integration of models of temperament and models of psychopathology will undoubtedly increase our understanding of both. The current special section intends to present important new ideas and evidence in this field and tries to formulate answers to a couple of emerging questions. To set the stage for the papers, we provide a brief state of the art of research on temperament—psychopathology associations. After that, we discuss emerging questions in the field, some of which are addressed in the papers of this special section. To conclude, we point out a couple of future research perspectives.     

Toward a new approach to the study of personality in culture

We review recent developments in the study of culture and personality measurement. Three approaches are described: an etic approach that focuses on establishing measurement equivalence in imported measures of personality, an emic (indigenous) approach that studies personality in specific cultures, and a combined emic-etic approach to personality. We propose the latter approach as a way of combining the methodological rigor of the etic approach and the cultural sensitivity of the emic approach. The combined approach is illustrated by two examples: the first with origins in Chinese culture and the second in South Africa. The article ends with a discussion of the theoretical and practical implications of the combined emic-etic approach for the study of culture and personality and for psychology as a science.     

Toward an integrated approach to early childhood stuttering

This article proposes a model that integrates various factors influencing early childhood stuttering. The factors interact in a synergistic manner and can be subsumed under three macrofactors: physiological, psycholinguistic, and psychosocial. Such a model can be clinically applied toward an integrated approach to the assessment and treatment of the young stutterer.