Aggression, conflict resolution, popularity, and attitude to school in Russian adolescents

The objective of the present study was to examine the effects of aggression and conflict-managing skills on popularity and attitude to school in Russian adolescents. Three types of aggression (physical, verbal, and indirect), constructive conflict resolution, third-party intervention, withdrawal, and victimization were examined using the Peer-Estimated Conflict Behavior (PECOBE) inventory [Bjorkquist and Osterman, 1998]. Also, all respondents rated peer and self-popularity with same-sex classmates and personal attitude to school. The sample consisted of 212 Russian adolescents (101 boys, 111 girls) aged between 11 and 15 years. The findings attest to significant sex differences in aggression and conflict resolution patterns. Boys scored higher on physical and verbal aggression, and girls on indirect aggression. Girls were socially more skillful than boys in the use of peaceful means of conflict resolution (they scored higher on constructive conflict resolution and third-party intervention). The attributional discrepancy index (ADI) scores were negative for all three types of aggression in both sexes. Verbal aggression is apparently more condemned in boys than in girls. ADI scores were positive for constructive conflict resolution and third-party intervention in both genders, being higher in boys. In girls, verbal aggression was positively correlated with popularity. In both sexes, popularity showed a positive correlation with constructive conflict resolution and third-party intervention, and a negative correlation with withdrawal and victimization. Boys who liked school were popular with same-sex peers and scored higher on constructive conflict resolution. Girls who liked school were less aggressive according to peer rating. They also rated higher on conflict resolution and third-party intervention. Physical aggression was related to age. The results are discussed in a cross-cultural perspective.     

“We're not friends anymore! unless…”: the frequency and harmfulness of indirect,relational, and social aggression

The frequency of items of indirect, relational, social, verbal, and physical aggression was assessed in the school environment of 422 adolescents, using the Indirect/Social/Relational Aggression scale (ISRA), a measure that combined items from indirect, relational, and social aggression research. We also assessed the perceived harmfulness of each item. Comparing these findings with the occurrence of aggression on television, we found that adolescents were exposed to nearly 10 times more indirect, relational, and social aggression on television than they are in school. Overall, there was no sex difference in the amount of aggression reported by boys and girls. However, when examining specific items, girls reported more gossiping and boys more hitting. Girls perceived indirect, direct relational, and verbal aggression as more harmful than did boys. Limited evidence was found for a distinction between indirect, relational, and social aggression, although it was clear that they were more similar than different. Aggr. Behav. 32:1–14, 2006. © 2006 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.     

Differential associations between maternal and paternal parenting and physical and relational aggression

A large number of studies have demonstrated that negative parenting is associated with greater levels of aggression (relational and physical) among school‐age children in Western cultures. However, the investigation of this association for children in non‐Western cultures is still in its infancy. The present study examines the associations between maternal and paternal parenting behaviours (conflict with the child, physical aggression toward the child and relational aggression toward the child) and forms of aggression, and explores gender differences in these associations among Japanese boys and girls. The participants were 130 fifth and sixth graders (age range: 10 to 12). Children reported maternal and paternal parenting behaviours, and classroom teachers assessed children's relational and physical aggression. Results show that boys and girls had more conflict, more relationally aggressive parenting experiences and more intimate relationships with their mothers than their fathers. Further, after controlling for grade and gender, greater maternal (but not paternal) relational aggression was associated with more peer‐oriented relational aggression for boys only and more peer‐oriented physical aggression for boys and girls. Greater paternal (but not maternal) conflict was predictive of more peer‐oriented physical aggression for boys and girls. The direction and strength of the associations between parenting behaviours and forms of aggression may be contingent upon the gender of the parent and the child. The findings are discussed from cultural, developmental and social perspectives, and implications for future research are discussed.     

同伴地位对青少年早期不同类型攻击行为发展的影响:性别与班级规范的调节作用

采用同伴提名法,对2470名初二学生进行为期半年的追踪研究,考察两种同伴地位(社会喜好和社会支配)对三种攻击类型(身体、言语和关系攻击)发展的预测,以及性别与班级规范在其中的调节作用。多层线性分析发现:(1)社会喜好负向、社会支配正向预测个体半年后的三类攻击行为,且男生的社会喜好对关系攻击的预测作用强于女生;(2)对于男生而言,身体和言语攻击的班级规范强化个体后续的攻击行为,但关系攻击的班级规范则无显著影响;对于女生而言,身体攻击的班级规范强化个体后续的攻击行为,言语和关系攻击的班级规范强化初始攻击水平低的个体相应的攻击行为、而对于初始攻击水平高的个体表现出弱化效应;(3)班级规范还能调节社会支配对攻击行为的影响,在言语攻击规范高的班级中,社会支配对个体言语攻击的正向预测作用更强。     

Gender Differences in Predicting Antisocial Behaviors: Developmental Consequences of Physical and Relational Aggression

This study investigated gender differences in the relationship of early physical and relational aggression to later peer rejection and overt and covert antisocial behaviors. Significant gender differences were found indicating physically aggressive boys were more likely than girls to experience later peer rejection. Early physical aggression was related to later overt antisocial behavior for boys and girls, and more strongly for girls than for boys. Early relational aggression was not associated with later forms of antisocial behavior. In the context of early physical aggression, for boys and girls peer rejection generally served to increment risk for later overt and covert antisocial behavior in an additive fashion. The data suggest some gender specificity in the social risk processes associated with the development of early overt and covert antisocial behaviors.     

A longitudinal study of relational aggression, physical aggression, and children's social-psychological adjustment

Although great strides have recently been made in our understanding of relational aggression and its consequences, one significant limitation has been the lack of prospective studies. The present research addressed this issue by identifying and assessing groups of relationally aggressive, physically aggressive, relationally plus physically aggressive (co-morbid), and nonaggressive children during their third grade year in elementary school and then reassessing them a year later, during fourth-grade (N = 224, 113 girls). Two aspects of social-psychological adjustment were assessed during both assessment periods including internalizing difficulties (i.e., withdrawal, depression/anxiety, and somatic complaints) and externalizing problems (i.e., aggressive behavior, delinquency). It was revealed that the strongest predictor of future social-psychological adjustment problems and increases in these problems from third to fourth was the combination of relational and physical aggression. Relational aggression also contributed unique information, relative to physical aggression, in the prediction of future maladjustment. Implications of these findings for future research and prevention efforts, particularly for aggressive girls, are discussed.     

The Development of Aggression During Adolescence: Sex Differences in Trajectories of Physical and Social Aggression Among Youth in Rural Areas

To describe trajectories of aggressive behaviors for adolescents living in rural areas, we compared the patterns, timing and sex differences in development of physical and social aggression using five waves of data collected from youth in school surveys administered over 2.5 years. The sample (N = 5,151) was 50.0% female, 52.1% Caucasian and 38.2% African-American. Multilevel growth curve models showed that physical and social aggression followed curvilinear trajectories from ages 11 to 18, with increases in each type of aggression followed by subsequent declines. Physical aggression peaked around age 15; social aggression peaked around age 14. Boys consistently perpetrated more physical aggression than girls, but the trajectories were parallel. There were no sex differences in the perpetration of social aggression. Given the characteristics of the developmental trajectories observed, interventions with both boys and girls targeting physically and socially aggressive behaviors are needed in early adolescence to slow the development of aggression.     

Exposure to maternal vs. paternal partner violence,PTSD, and aggression in adolescent girls and boys

Adolescents who witness interparental violence (IPV) are at increased risk for perpetrating aggressive acts. They are also at risk for post‐traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). In this study, we examined the relation between exposure to maternal vs. paternal physical IPV and adolescent girls' and boys' aggressive behavior toward mothers, fathers, friends, and romantic partners. We also assessed the influence of PTSD (as assessed by the Diagnostic Interview for Children and Adolescents‐IV (DICA‐IV)) on the relation between exposure to IPV and aggressive behavior. Participants were 63 girls and 49 boys, ages 13–18, consecutively admitted to a youth correctional facility or assessment facility designated to serve aggressive and delinquent youth. Structural equation modeling was used to estimate unique relations between exposure to maternal vs. paternal IPV and youth aggression in relationships. Girls who observed their mothers' aggressive behavior toward partners were significantly more aggressive toward friends. Similarly, boys who witnessed their fathers' aggression were significantly more aggressive toward friends. Adolescent girls and boys who observed aggression by mothers toward partners reported significantly higher levels of aggression toward their romantic partners. Approximately one third of our sample met PTSD criteria; the relation between exposure to parental IPV and aggression was stronger for individuals who met criteria for PTSD. The implications of understanding the relations between parents' and their daughters' and sons' use of aggression are discussed within the context of providing support for families in breaking intergenerational patterns of violence and aggression. Aggr. Behav. 32:385–395, 2006. © 2006 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.     

Different forms of aggression among inner-city African-American children: Gender, configurations, and school social networks

Using narrative reports of peer conflicts among a sample of African-American children and adolescents from inner-city schools, this study investigated the development and social functions of four types of aggressive behaviors: social, direct relational, physical, and verbal aggression. A total of 489 participants in grades 1, 4, and 7 were interviewed (220 boys and 269 girls). Results showed that low levels of social aggression and high levels of physical aggression were reported in peer conflicts. Gender differences on social, direct relational, and physical aggression were primarily observed in the comparisons of same-gender conflicts at grade 7. Distinct configurations were identified across different forms of aggression. Boys with configurations of physical and/or verbal aggression had higher levels of school social network centrality than non-aggressive boys. Girls with configurations of social and/or direct relational aggression showed relatively higher levels of network centrality than non-aggressive girls.     

Developmental and Sex Differences in Types of Conduct Problems

Maternal report of types of conduct problems in a high-risk sample of 228 boys and 80 girls (ages 4–18) were examined, using a version of the Child Behavior Checklist, expanded to include a range of covert and overt antisocial items (stealing, lying, physical aggression, relational aggression, substance use, and impulsivity). Age and sex effects were investigated. Boys were significantly more physically aggressive than girls. There were no sex differences for stealing, lying, relational aggression, and substance use. Lying and substance use increased with age, whereas relational aggression and impulsivity peaked during early adolescence. A small group of girls had pervasive conduct problems across multiple domains. For some domains such as stealing, lying, and relational aggression, girls showed at least as many problems as boys. Girls, in general, tended to have fewer conduct problems. On the other hand, when assessed across multiple domains, conduct problems in high-risk girls were possibly more pervasive than in high-risk boys, suggesting the possibility of a gender paradox.     

Contingent responses of mothers and peers to indirect and direct aggression in preschool and school-aged children

The primary goal of the study was to determine whether mother and peer's responses to direct and indirect aggression would contribute to children's use of direct and indirect aggression. Using adaptations of the Direct and Indirect Aggression Scale, a multi-informant strategy, and a sample of disadvantaged families, data were collected from 296 mothers of children ages 4-11, 237 children ages 6-11, and 151 teachers of those children. Mothers and peers were reported to react more harshly in response to direct aggression compared with indirect aggression, and higher rates of direct aggression were associated with reduced popularity. These findings were seen as being consistent with the hypothesis that different forms of aggression result in differential responding by mothers and peers, as well as the notion that direct aggression is a higher cost option than indirect aggression. Results also replicated previous findings that boys tend to use physical aggression more than girls, but girls use indirect aggression more than boys. Finally, low IQ was correlated with higher direct aggression in girls but had no relation with aggression in boys.     

Age differences in the prevalence of physical aggression among 5-11-year-old Canadian boys and girls

It has been proven extremely difficult in the past to estimate the prevalence of physical aggression in children for two main reasons: (a) a heterogeneous sampling of behaviors (i.e., mix between physically aggressive and non-physically aggressive antisocial behaviors), and (b) a lack of a "gold standard" to identify children who exhibit physically aggressive behaviors on a frequent basis. The goal of this study was to test for age differences in the prevalence of physical aggression in the Canadian population of school-aged boys and girls, using cross-sectional data from the National Longitudinal Survey of Children and Youth (NLSCY). The first wave of the NLSCY included a representative sample of 12,292 Canadian children aged 5-11 years. We used latent class analysis to identify children whose propensity to exhibit physically aggressive behaviors was much higher than that of other children of the same age and sex in the population. The prevalence of physical aggression was estimated at 3.7% in 5-11-year-old boys and ranged from .5% to 2.3% in 11 and 5-year-old girls, respectively. Hence, the results show a decreasing trend in the prevalence of physical aggression with age for girls, but not for boys. These findings suggest the importance of considering the developmental pathways of physical aggression for boys and girls separately.     

Examining genetic and environmental effects on reactive versus proactive aggression

This study compared the contribution of genes and environment to teacher-rated reactive and proactive aggression in 6-year-old twin pairs (172 pairs: 55 monozygotic girls, 48 monozygotic boys, 33 dizygotic girls, 36 dizygotic boys). Genetic effects accounted for 39% of the variance of reactive aggression and for 41% of the variance of proactive aggression. The remainder of the variance was explained by unique environmental effects. Genetic as well as unique environmental effects were significantly correlated across reactive and proactive aggression (genetic correlation = .87, environmental correlation = .34), but this overlap was largely due to a common underlying form of aggression (i.e., teacher-rated physical aggression). Once common etiological factors due to physical aggression were accounted for, reactive and proactive aggression shared no other genes and only a few environmental influences, although additional specific genetic and environmental effects were observed for both reactive and proactive aggression. These specific effects indicate that both reactive and proactive aggression may be influenced mostly by socialization experiences that are specific to each type of aggression and only to a very small degree by specific genes.     

The development of social aggression and physical aggression: A narrative analysis of interpersonal conflicts

Using conflict narratives reported by children and adolescents, this study investigated the development and social functions of social aggression in comparison to physical aggression. A total of 510 participants in two cohorts of a longitudinal study were involved (116 girls and 104 boys from Grade 4 and155 girls and 135 boys from Grade 7). Patterns of social aggression and physical aggression were identified based on interview reports in the first year of the study. Results showed that a triadic structure of social relationship was often reported in conflicts where social aggression was employed, whereas a dyadic structure was reported in conflicts involving physical aggression. Girls tended to use social aggression against girls, whereas boys tended to use physical aggression against boys. Children and adolescents who were central in peer social networks were more likely to employ social aggression than those who were peripheral in the networks. Social aggression was not reliably linked to concurrent or future problematic adjustment. Physical aggression, however, was not related to network centrality but was linked to concurrent and future maladjustment (e.g., low academic competence and school dropout). Aggr. Behav. 28:341–355, 2002. © 2002 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.     

Aggressive behavior among girls and boys during middle childhood: predictors and sequelae of trajectory group membership

Using longitudinal data spanning early elementary through middle school, aggression behavior trajectory groups were identified for boys and girls. Early elementary school predictors of trajectory group membership were examined as well as whether trajectory group predicted physical aggression, covert delinquency, and substance use in 9th grade. Semiparametric group modeling identified aggression behavior trajectory groups. We identified four aggression trajectory groups for both genders described as “not involved,” “low,” “moderate,” and “high.” Attention problems, family conflict, and low school commitment and attachment were predictors of membership in higher aggression groups for both boys and girls. Low family involvement and low parental education predicted membership in higher aggression groups for boys; while depression, low‐income status, and having a single parent predicted higher aggression group membership for girls. For both boys and girls, few risk predictors distinguished between the moderate and high aggression trajectories except that low school commitment and having a teen mother were significant predictors of being in the high group for girls, and low parental education and income were significant predictors of being in the high group for boys. Membership in the higher aggression trajectory groups predicted involvement in violent behaviors, covert delinquency, and substance use in 9th grade. Findings suggest that children who display an early trajectory of high levels of aggressive behavior are more likely to continue involvement in later problem behaviors. Second‐grade predictors suggest commonality of risk across genders and provide evidence of modifiable targets for preventive interventions. Aggr. Behav. 32:1–15. 2006. © 2006 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.     

Gender Differences in Psychopathic Traits,Types, and Correlates of Aggression Among Adjudicated Youth

The current study investigated gender differences in types and correlates of aggression among 150 adjudicated youth (M age = 15.2, SD = 1.4). In cluster analysis, consistent with past studies, one aggressive group characterized by moderate levels of reactive aggression and one characterized by high levels of proactive and reactive aggression emerged and these patterns were consistent across gender. For both boys and girls, the combined proactive/reactive aggression cluster showed the greatest levels of aggression, impulsivity, and callous-unemotional traits, supporting a severity over a typology model of proactive and reactive aggression. Girls displayed significantly higher rates of physical and relational aggression than boys. Girls were highly aggressive toward both girls and boys, whereas boys were highly aggressive only toward other boys. Girls also showed multiple indications of severity and emotionality, indexed by higher rates of negative affect, anxiety, distress about social provocations, and empathy.     

Hostility, aggression, and anxiety levels of divorce and nondivorce children as manifested in their responses to projective tests

The effects of parental divorce on the levels of aggression, hostility, and anxiety in children, as measured by the Rorschach test, together with the type and direction of aggression, as measured by the Rosenzweig Picture-Frustration (P-F) Study, were studied. The Rorschach and the Rosenzweig P-F study were administered to a nonclinical sample of 108 Swedish children ranging in age from 10 to 12 years old. The subjects constituted a divorce and a nondivorce group of 27 girls and 27 boys each. Children of divorced parents (hereafter referred to as divorce children, divorce boys, or divorce girls) showed significantly higher levels of hostility, aggression, and anxiety than children of married parents (hereafter referred to as nondivorce children, nondivorce boys, nondivorce girls). There were significant differences found in the type and direction of aggression between divorce girls and boys. Divorce boys showed more extraggression and ego defensive reactions, whereas divorce girls tended to evade aggression. The differences between divorce and nondivorce groups and the diversity of reactions between divorce boys and girls are discussed.     

初中生情绪反应、表达及其与攻击行为

运用自编的《中学生情绪评定问卷》和修订的Spielberger《状态——特质愤怒表达问卷》对833名普通中学初中生进行了测试,并用同伴提名的方法把学生分为普通组、身体攻击组和关系攻击组,探讨了初中生情绪反应、表达的特点和攻击行为学生情绪反应、表达的特点。研究结果表明:(1)初中女生报告的恐惧感、悲伤感高于男生,女生报告的愤怒表达也显著高于男生;但在特质愤怒方面,男生报告的特质愤怒水平显著高于女生。在情绪表达与反应的大多数方面不存在显著的年级差异,只在负性情绪表达方面初二女生报告了比初一、初三女生更高的负性情绪表达。(2)被同伴提名为身体攻击学生在状态愤怒、特质愤怒、愤怒表达方面显著高于普通学生,被同伴提名为关系攻击的学生在特质愤怒、愤怒表达方面也显著高于普通学生。攻击行为学生的愤怒情绪系统存在一定的缺陷。     

“It Makes Me a Man from the Beating I Took”: Gender and Aggression in Children’s Narratives About Conflict

Personal conflict narratives were written by 364 4th–6th graders from two urban schools in the U.S. mid-south that contrasted in levels of poverty and crime. Narratives were coded for severity of violence, type of aggression, explanations, characters’ mental and emotional states, and authors’ moral evaluations. Boys described more severe physical violence than girls, but provided fewer explanations, less moral evaluation, and showed less psychological mindedness in the moderate-stress neighborhood, but only when they wrote stories about boy aggressors and physical or psychological aggression. Boys describing girl or relational aggression were as psychologically and morally astute as girls were. Girls also neglected to explain and evaluate boys’ aggression. Findings supported a social constructivist model of how narrative discourse may gender aggression.