The future of Rorschach in personality assessment

This article considers the Rorschach and its prospects for the next century in the context of two broad issues in psychology, as well as some test specific challenges confronting those interested in the Rorschach and its applications. The broad issues are the matters of personality as a topic of study in psychology, and the relation of findings about personality to treatment planning. The specific issues concern the definition of the Rorschach, research about the test stimuli, and the expansion of information concerning the interpretive usefulness of some structural variables that are poorly conceptualized or for which interpretation may be overly generalized. Some recommendations concerning collaborative research efforts are also offered.     

On the integration of personality assessment methods: the Rorschach and MMPI

Despite being the most studied and used personality assessment tools, data from the Rorschach and MMPI generally disagree (Archer & Krishnamurthy, 1993a, 1993b). Independence is proposed to result from at least 3 factors: (a) the methods tap unique levels of personality, (b) personality has a complex organization, and (c) response styles generate considerable method variance that must be considered in nomothetic research. These ideas led to 5 hypotheses, each of which received support. Rorschach and MMPI response styles are uncorrelated, although response styles are quite consistent within a method family. MMPI-2 and Rorschach constructs of dysphoria, psychosis, or wariness are uncorrelated when response styles are ignored. However, robust convergent validity is evident when patients have similar response styles on each method (e.g., for dysphoria, M r = .59) and dysphoria is expressed in opposing ways on each method when response styles are discordant (i.e., M r = -.54). Data from the latter analyses were correlated with genuine clinical phenomena and implications were discussed for clinical practice and research.     

Rorschach score validation as a model for 21st-century personality assessment

Recent conceptual and methodological innovations have led to new strategies for documenting the construct validity of test scores, including performance-based test scores. These strategies have the potential to generate more definitive evidence regarding the validity of scores derived from the Rorschach Inkblot Method (RIM) and help resolve some long-standing controversies regarding the clinical utility of the Rorschach. After discussing the unique challenges in studying the Rorschach and why research in this area is important given current trends in scientific and applied psychology, I offer 3 overarching principles to maximize the construct validity of RIM scores, arguing that (a) the method that provides RIM validation measures plays a key role in generating outcome predictions; (b) RIM variables should be linked with findings from neighboring subfields; and (c) rigorous RIM score validation includes both process-focused and outcome-focused assessments. I describe a 4-step strategy for optimal RIM score derivation (formulating hypotheses, delineating process links, generating outcome predictions, and establishing limiting conditions); and a 4-component template for RIM score validation (establishing basic psychometrics, documenting outcome-focused validity, assessing process-focused validity, and integrating outcome- and process-focused validity data). The proposed framework not only has the potential to enhance the validity and utility of the RIM, but might ultimately enable the RIM to become a model of test score validation for 21st-century personality assessment.     

Monitoring psychotherapy with performance-based measures of personality functioning

In this commentary, I review a meta-analysis and three original research reports concerning the Rorschach (Exner, 2003; Rorschach, 1921/1942) and the Thematic Apperception Test (TAT; Murray, 1943) assessment in psychological treatment planning and outcome evaluation. The information in these four articles bears witness to the potential utility of performance-based personality assessment measures for this purpose. The strengths and limitations of the articles suggest several guidelines for future research designed to examine this Rorschach and TAT application including an emphasis on effectiveness studies, longitudinal data, integrated independent variables, observable dependent variables, sophisticated data analysis combining nomothetic and idiographic presentation, and the incremental contribution of performance-based measures to psychotherapy-related personality assessment.     

Understanding multiple personality with the Comprehensive Rorschach system

Exner's Comprehensive Rorschach system is utilized in studying a unique sample of patients--three multiple personalities. Each patient and a number of secondary personalities are tested. Several interpretative and technical aspects of Exner's system are clarified. All of the main personalities are ambient, extending Exner's conclusions regarding the implications of this style. The secondary personalities have personality structures which are remarkably different from those of the main personalities. Differences from previous studies are attributed to unique administrative features of the Comprehensive system.     

Rorschach assessment of borderline children

Projective testing may provide the clinician with a valuable context in which childhood borderline conditions may be investigated. The purpose of this study was to determine if Rorschach scores could be useful in diagnosing borderline disorders. Rorschach scores from a group of 13 borderline children and 10 conduct disorder children were compared using a step-down discriminate analysis. The results indicated that children in these two groups could be correctly classified beyond chance levels using Rorschach scores. Three variable, content analysis, human movement, and animal movement were the strongest contributors in separating the two groups. The Rorschach measure of form quality (i.e., adequacy of perception) was notable in that it failed to produce any independent discriminatory power in this analysis. As in the case of adult borderline testing using the Rorschach, novel scoring procedures, used in conjunction with standard scoring procedures may lead to further clarification of childhood borderline disorders.     

A Rorschach investigation of narcissism and hysteria in antisocial personality

We investigated Rorschach responses associated with narcissism and hysteria in a group of antisocial personality disordered offenders. The Rorschach protocols of 42 subjects who met the criteria from the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (3rd ed., rev. [DSM-III-R]; American Psychiatric Association, 1987) for antisocial personality disorder were analyzed using Exner's (1986) criteria for pairs, reflections, and personal responses, and Gacono's (1988) criteria for the impressionistic response. Severe, or primary psychopaths (n = 21), scoring greater than or equal to 30 on the Hare (1980) Psychopathy Checklist (PCL), were compared to moderate, or secondary pscyhopaths (n = 21), scoring less than 30 on the PCL. The mean number of pair and impressionistic responses did not significantly differ for the two antisocial groups. The highly psychopathic group, however, did exhibit a significantly greater mean number of reflection and personal responses. We discuss pair and reflection responses and their relationship to narcissism in psychopathic disturbance. We recommend interpreting the personal response within the context of the psychopathic character and view personal responses as expressions of narcissism and omnipotence in highly psychopathic subjects. We also hypothesize that the impressionistic responses are indicative of primitive dissociative processes and hysteria in psychopathic subjects, and that their presence provides construct validity for the work of Guze (1976) and others who suggested an underlying histrionic dimension to psychopathy.     

An external construct validity study of Rorschach personality variables

This study examined (a) hypothesized relationships between Rorschach variables and self-report test measures relating to nominally similar aspects of personality functioning and (b) interrelationships among Rorschach variables. Sixty-two undergraduates were administered the Rorschach, Barron Ego Strength Scale, Kaplan Self-Derogation Scale, Eagly Self-Esteem Scale, Multiple Affective Adjective Checklist (MAACL), Marlowe-Crowne Social Desirability Scale, and the Rotter Locus of Control Scale. Only a few of the predictions received confirmation: inanimate movement (m) correlated, as expected, with MAACL anxiety and hostility, the egocentricity index (3r + 2)/R (R = total responses) correlated significantly with self-esteem, and human movement with minus form level (M-) correlated (inversely) with ego strength. Among the unpredicted findings were some that appear inconsistent with standard Rorschach interpretation. Rorschach variables human movement (M), and experience actual (EA), generally interpreted as reflecting coping resources, related significantly with self-report measures of poor coping and of dysphoric affect. In general, the Rorschach appears better at identifying weaknesses in the ego rather than strengths.     

The consequences of pairing questions: context effects in personality measurement

The effect of context on responses to questions has been a prominent focus in social and political survey research. However, little investigation of context effects has been done for the measurement of psychological constructs. A measure of anger experience and expression in development uses vignettes describing interpersonal situations that provoke varying degrees of anger and require respondents to indicate their affective and/or expressive response to the situation. In this study, the consequences of pairing the two questions for each vignette are investigated. Pairing the anger-experience and likelihood-of-expression questions changes the item's context. Item response theory analysis similar to that used to detect differential item functioning was performed. For some of the items, responding to a single or paired question affected the extremity of responses. The findings are discussed in terms of their implications for personality measurement.     

Perceptions of the utility of personality assessment for personnel selection in the South African context: An exploratory study

This study explored South African industrial psychologists’ perceptions of the utility of personality assessment for personnel selection. Eleven industrial psychologists (2 male, 9 female) from the Johannesburg area, South Africa were the participants. They participated in semi-structured interviews exploring their understanding of the place of personality assessment in personnel selection within organisational settings in South Africa and the common practices employed. Thematic analysis was used to analyse the data. Four dominant themes emerged from the data: person-environment fit; specific uses of personality tests; commonly used tests and validity and ethical concerns. Based on the findings, personality assessment use in South African industry settings appears multi-layered and consistently evolving.     

Constructivism and the projective assessment of meaning in Rorschach administration

Constructivist perspectives on the Rorschach are outlined. I discuss ways in which constructivism complements and adds to existing Rorschach methodologies. It is suggested hat the constructivist emphasis on personally and socially constructed meanings is very consistent with many of the ways the Rorschach has been used and resonates with recent emphases on the Rorschach as a representational task. Furthermore, constructivist perspectives on Rorschach also provide an opportunity to supplement Exner's (1993, 1995) efforts to standardize and norm the Rorschach in a way that maintains the instrument's historic and admirable attention to relational elements of assessment and psychotherapy. I present a variety of meaning-based techniques for conducting Rorschach assessment, incorporating both the constructivist and social constructionist perspective.     

Current perspectives on psychoanalytic Rorschach assessment

In this article, I present as clear and as updated an account as possible of several of the essential features that comprise a psychoanalytic approach to the Rorschach. Specific attention is accorded the assessment frame, the language of assessment, sources of assessment information, and differing approaches to the interpretation of Rorschach data. The article comes out of a Rorschach tradition begun by Rapaport, extended by Schafer and Mayman, and presently being updated by Leichtman and Smith.     

On the renaissance of personality assessment and personality theory

Both personality assessment and personality theory have experienced a significant decline in the past two or three decades, giving way to alternate professional interests by some, and being attacked as both empirically unsupportable and devoid of conceptual merit by others. Several tangible signs suggest that a resurrection is underway owing to position reversals by former critics, the changing character of patient populations, refinements in personality-oriented psychometric techniques, the refurbishing of analytic, interpersonal, and learning theories of personality, and the central role assigned personality disorders in the multiaxial format of the DSM-III. Looking toward the future, the paper proposes a series of comprehensive and parallel diagnostic criteria for the personality disorders to be included in either DSM-IIIR or DSM-IV.     

The Rorschach mutuality of autonomy scale in the assessment of black father-absent male children

This study examined the utility of the Rorschach Mutuality of Autonomy Scale (MOA, Urist, 1977) in the assessment of two groups of 40 father-absent Black male children (aged 6 to 12 years): those whose fathers had left voluntarily versus those whose fathers had left involuntarily. Children who had experienced involuntary father-absence reflected less adaptive object-relations attainment status as measured by the MOA, t(38) = 2.37, p = > .02, when compared to children whose fathers had negotiated their departure. Although the Rorschach MOA can be a useful measure of assessing psychological functioning in Black father-absent male children, a multimethod assessment of object-relations status for ethnic minority children is proposed.     

Implicit self-esteem in the context of trait models of personality

Although the basic dimensions of personality are strongly associated with individual differences in (explicit) self-esteem, the relations between personality and implicit self-esteem have not been systematically researched. In three studies, implicit self-evaluations (measured both with the Name-Letter Test and the self-esteem IAT) were generally independent of personality self-reports (Studies 1–3) and peer-reports (Study 3). Moreover, the implicit measures were also independent of one another. Discussion centers on the problems and promises of implicit measures as indicators of individual differences in self-esteem and their relation to personality.     

Rorschach assessment of purging and nonpurging bulimics

Research in bulimia has flourished in recent years, and yet minimal attention has been devoted to explorations of the bulimic's basic personality organization. We utilized the Rorschach to differentiate between purging and nonpurging bulimics and controls. There were 15 subjects in each group. The Comprehensive System (Exner, 1986) was used for the scoring of the protocols. Statistically significant differences were not found between the two bulimia groups, but interesting trends were detected in the areas of depression, anger, and self-preoccupation. Results appear to be constrained by the low rate of purging behavior. Comparisons between the combined bulimia groups and the controls resulted in solidly characterizing the bulimics as displaying perceptual inaccuracies, disordered thinking, a vulnerability to interpersonal problems, a damaged self-image, and a pessimistic outlook. The strengths of the study were its use of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (3rd ed., rev. [DSM-III-R]; American Psychiatric Association, 1987) nonpatients bulimic subtypes and a control group that was comparable in terms of demographics. Future Rorschach studies with bulimics displaying higher frequencies of binging and purging behaviors are suggested.     

Rorschach personality predictors of weight loss with behavior modification in obesity treatment

Weight loss outcome for 49 obese patients after 6 months treatment in a behavior modification program was related to Rorschach personality characteristics according to the Comprehensive System (Exner, 2003), also including the Rorschach Oral Dependency Scale (Bornstein, 1996; Masling & Rabie, 1967). Less weight loss was predicted by signs of perceptual and cognitive distortions indicated by the Schizophrenia Index. More weight loss was predicted by Food Contents, suggesting a food preoccupation and possibly a benign dependency orientation. Patients with a focus on food and dependent needs could benefit above all from the treatment program implying learning how to handle food and eating in a supportive setting, as evidenced by more weight loss. Distortions in perception and cognition could constitute more profound difficulties in weight reduction important to recognize in obesity treatment.