Temporal interval production and short-term memory

Interference with time estimation from concurrent nontemporal processing has been shown to depend on the short-term memory requirements of the concurrent task (Fortin & Breton, 1995; Fortin, Rousseau, Bourque, & Kirouac, 1993). In particular, it has been claimed that active processing of information in short-term memory produces interference, whereas simply maintaining information does not. Here, four experiments are reported in which subjects were trained to produce a 2,500-msec interval and then perform concurrent memory tasks. Interference with timing was demonstrated for concurrent memory tasks involving only maintenance. In one experiment, increasing set size in a pitch memory task systematically lengthened temporal production. Two further experiments suggested that this was due to a specific interaction between the short-term memory requirements of the pitch task and those of temporal production. In the final experiment, subjects performed temporal production while concurrently remembering the durations of a set of tones. Interference with interval production was comparable to that produced by the pitch memory task. Results are discussed in terms of a pacemaker-counter model of temporal processing, in which the counter component is supported by short-term memory.     

Temporal interval production and processing in working memory

Short-term memory or working memory has been proposed as a cognitive structure contributing to time estimation. Thus, in a previous experiment, retrieving a stored item during a temporalinterval production lengthened the interval in proportion to the number of items in the memory set. In the present study, this issue was analyzed further by testing whether the proportional lengthening is induced by the load itself (i.e., the number of items) or by comparing the probe with memorized items. In a first experiment, a memory set was maintained during a temporal production, and the comparison of the probe with memorized items was postponed until the end of time production. Varying the number of items in the memory set had no effect on temporal intervals produced during its retention, suggesting that mental comparison was the source of the lengthening of time intervals. In succeeding experiments, tasks requiring processing in working memory but involving no memory load were combined with temporal production. In Experiment 2, increasing the number of syllables in a rhyme-judgment task proportionally lengthened temporal intervals that were produced simultaneously. In Experiment 3, increasing the amount of mental rotation in a task involving visuospatial processing also lengthened simultaneous temporal production. This interference between processing in working memory and time estimation suggests that working memory, defined as a work space for active processing of current information, contributes to time estimation.     

Imitation and locus of control

This study dealt with the relationship between Locus of Control and imitation. Based on a review of the social influence literature, it was hypothesized that external individuals would imitate equally under a condition of model-reward and a condition of no model-reward. It was further hypothesized that internal subjects would demonstrate more imitation under a condition of model-reward than under the condition of no model-reward. Male college students were classified as internal or external on the basis of their scores on the Locus of Control Scale. Internals imitated a rewarded model significantly more than a nonrewarded model. Externals imitated both models equally and at a rate comparable to internals who observed a rewarded model. Subject ratings of model competence were also positively related to imitation among internals but not among externals. The results are interpreted as offering support for the general notion of the effect of observer characteristics on imitation.     

Reciprocal Imitation Following Adult Imitation by Children with Autism

This study examined the effects of adult imitation and adult playfulness on the imitation, social attention and initiation of new behaviours by non‐verbal preschoolers with autism. Videotapes taken from a previous study were recoded for the adult's imitation and playful behaviour and the children's imitation, social attention (looking at the adult's actions) and initiation of new behaviours. In the original study, twenty non‐verbal, 4‐ to 6‐year‐old children with autism were randomly assigned to an imitation or a contingent responsivity group. Both groups of children engaged in an intervention phase (during which the adult imitated the children or contingently responded to them) and a subsequent spontaneous play phase (during which the adult interacted spontaneously with the children). ANOVA for the current study revealed that the imitation group children versus the contingent responsivity group children spent a greater percent time showing social attention and initiating new behaviours during the intervention phase and showing social attention and imitating the adult's behaviours during the subsequent spontaneous play phase. A correlation analysis yielded significant correlations between the percent time the adult imitated the child during the intervention phase and the percent time the child showed social attention during the same intervention phase and imitating the adult during the subsequent spontaneous play phase. Adult imitation and playfulness during the spontaneous play phase were also correlated with the children's social attention during that phase. Copyright © 2013 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Hobbes and the Imitation of God

This note discusses the implications of an incorrect quotation that appeared in Ted H. Miller's article, 'Thomas Hobbes and the Constraints that Enable the Imitation of God', from Inquiry42.2 (1999). Although surely inadvertent, this error is significant because the author uses it to support the thesis that Hobbes envisions philosophers imitating God by creating order out of chaos. The correct quotation from Leviathandoes not support such a thesis, and the paragraph in Leviathanfrom which it is taken actually runs counter to it. The correct quotation, taken in its context, and a passage from De Corporecited by Professor Miller reveal that Hobbes encourages philosophers to imitate God by following the order of creation in contemplation. In other words, philosophers imitate God by imitating the creation.     

Imitation of Self-Stimulation:

Three autistic children participated in single subject, reversal designs to compare the impact of over correction and adult imitation on self-stimulation. In addition to continuous 10-second observations of frequency of self-stimulation during 10 minute sessions, experimenter and observer also rated the child's mood, attention to the experimenter and quality of attention paid. The order of interventions was randomized fro each subject with baseline preceding each intervention. Although each child's response pattern was unique, the data showed systematic changes in rates of self-stimulation across conditions for two of the children with mean levels of self-stimulation declining during the over correction procedure and increasing during imitation. There were parallel changes in mood and attention with all three children appearing “happiest” and most attentive when their self-stimulatory behavior was imitated by the adult. These results raise interesting possibilities for using adult imitation as a vehicle for establishing a reinforcing relationship with the autistic child.     

Imitation improves language comprehension

Humans imitate each other during social interaction. This imitative behavior streamlines social interaction and aids in learning to replicate actions. However, the effect of imitation on action comprehension is unclear. This study investigated whether vocal imitation of an unfamiliar accent improved spoken-language comprehension. Following a pretraining accent comprehension test, participants were assigned to one of six groups. The baseline group received no training, but participants in the other five groups listened to accented sentences, listened to and repeated accented sentences in their own accent, listened to and transcribed accented sentences, listened to and imitated accented sentences, or listened to and imitated accented sentences without being able to hear their own vocalizations. Posttraining measures showed that accent comprehension was most improved for participants who imitated the speaker's accent. These results show that imitation may aid in streamlining interaction by improving spoken-language comprehension under adverse listening conditions.     

Imitation in shadowing words

Imitation of shadowed words was evaluated using Goldinger’s (1998) AXB paradigm. The first experiment was a replication of Goldinger’s experiments with different tokens. Experiment 1’s AXB tests showed that shadowed words were judged to be better imitations of target words than were baseline (read) counterparts more often than chance (.50). Order of presentation of baseline and shadowed words in the AXB test also significantly influenced judgments. Degree of prior exposure to token words did not significantly influence judgments of imitation. Experiment 2 employed modified target tokens with extended voice onset times (VOTs). In addition to AXB tests, VOTs of response tokens were compared across baseline and shadowing conditions. The AXB tests revealed shadowed words to be better imitations of target tokens than baseline, without an influence of AXB presentation order. Differences between baseline and shadowing VOTs were greater when VOTs were extended. The implications of spontaneous imitation in nonsocial settings are considered.     

Imitation and novelty in product development

A human stigmergy model of product development through a series of incremental novelties and imitations is obtained by observing the isomorphism between solution trees generated by groups of humans participating in online games like Foldit, self-organizing topics in online learning systems, product evolution through a combination of innovation and imitation in the cell phone industry, and social networks formed over the past 40 years in creation of the Boston biotech commons. The model incorporates two very simple rules: (1) preferential attachment, and (2) the combination of existing product designs into a single design. A computer model used to simulate the model produces product evolution networks isomorphic to observed solution trees and product evolution trees. Additionally, industries with a high degree of novelty produce a product evolution network with scale-free and betweenness centrality structure.     

Defining Elemental Imitation Mechanisms: A Comparison of Cognitive and Motor-Spatial Imitation Learning Across Object- and Computer-Based Tasks

During the first 5 years of life, the versatility, breadth, and fidelity with which children imitate change dramatically. Currently, there is no model to explain what underlies such significant changes. To that end, the present study examined whether task-independent but domain-specific—elemental—imitation mechanism explains performance across imitation tasks or domains. Preschool-age children (n = 156) were tested on 4 imitation tasks, 2 object-based (animal, puzzle box) and 2 computer-based (cognitive, motor-spatial). All tasks involved 3 serial actions. The animal task involved making an animal face, and the puzzle box task involved manipulating a box to retrieve a reward. The cognitive task involved responding to 3 different pictures in a specific picture order, and the motor-spatial task involved responding to 3 identical pictures in a specific spatial order. A principal component analysis including performance on all 4 tasks produced 2 components: “cognitive imitation” (cognitive and animal tasks) and “motor-spatial imitation” (motor-spatial and puzzle box tasks). Regression analyses replicated these results. These findings provide preliminary support for the hypothesis that underlying performance across these different tasks involves multiple—elemental—imitation mechanisms for learning and copying domain-specific information across tasks.     

Imitation in shadowing words

Imitation of shadowed words was evaluated using Goldinger's (1998) AXB paradigm. The first experiment was a replication of Goldinger's experiments with different tokens. Experiment 1's AXB tests showed that shadowed words were judged to be better imitations of target words than were baseline (read) counterparts more often than chance (.50). Order of presentation of baseline and shadowed words in the AXB test also significantly influenced judgments. Degree of prior exposure to token words did not significantly influence judgments of imitation. Experiment 2 employed modified target tokens with extended voice onset times (VOTs). In addition to AXB tests, VOTs of response tokens were compared across baseline and shadowing conditions. The AXB tests revealed shadowed words to be better imitations of target tokens than baseline, without an influence of AXB presentation order. Differences between baseline and shadowing VOTs were greater when VOTs were extended. The implications of spontaneous imitation in nonsocial settings are considered.     

Imitation and social responsiveness in autistic children

Fifteen autistic children, ages 4–6 years, participated in the present study. Imitation and object permanence skills were assessed. Language and social behaviors were observed during free play. Children were also exposed to three interactive procedures that differed in developmental sophistication. The experimenter either (1) simultaneously imitated the child's actions, (2) modeled a familiar action, or (3) modeled a novel action. It was found that the autistic children who had a low level of imitative ability (Piaget's Stages 2–3) were more socially responsive, showed more eye contact, and played with toys in a less perseverative manner when the experimenter imitated their behavior than when the experimenter modeled either a familiar or a novel action. When the experimenter modeled a familiar as opposed to a novel action, these children were more likely to spontaneously imitate the experimenter. The autistic children with more highly developed imitation skills, however, responded similarly to all conditions. They also were generally more socially and verbally responsive. These results suggest that developmental status is an important variable in designing intervention programs for severely impaired children.We would like to express our appreciation to the autistic children who participated in the study, and to their parents, and to the staff of the T.E.A.C.C.H. Division, University of North Carolina for their help and cooperation. We would also like to thank Karen Cotten, Pete Giordano, Vickie Hall, Lee Hendrix, Shari Jernigan, Kevin Lumley, Cindy Seagroves, Sheryl Solomon, Kathy Stetson, and Jeannie Teasley for their assistance in data collection and coding, and Mary Lynn Eckert and Anne Stanford for their secretarial assistance. Cathy Dent provided helpful suggestions on earlier drafts of the paper. Support was provided by UNC Research Council.     

摹仿与原始社会中的伦理道德

摹仿在人类原始文化中的作用和功能是什么 ?传统的解释多集中在美学领域。从文化人类学的角度 ,探讨摹仿在原始社会物质生产和精神生产中的巨大作用及其在原始社会伦理道德意识的起源、形成和传承中作用是有重要意义的。