时间距离和自我解释对调节焦点的影响

调节焦点理论提出,自我调节过程中存在着提升焦点和预防焦点这两种不同的目标追求策略。基于以往研究,本研究提出,自我解释和时间距离会交互影响着人们的调节焦点。研究结果发现,自我解释能够显著地预测调节焦点;独立自我解释更可能激活个体的提升焦点倾向,而依赖自我解释更可能激活个体的预防焦点倾向。此外,近期时间距离启动条件下,独立和依赖自我解释使得个体的调节焦点的差异倾向性更为明显,但是对远期时间距离的知觉则使得依赖自我解释的个体更加偏离预防焦点倾向,趋向于提升性焦点,并与独立自我解释差异不大。     

The attractiveness of enriched and impoverished options: culture, self-construal, and regulatory focus

The authors propose that there is a systematic impact of a person's activated self-construal (interdependent vs. independent) on the evaluation of enriched and impoverished options. This hypothesis is tested using a cross-country comparison of participants from China and the United States (Study 1) and by priming self-construal (Study 2) and regulatory focus (Study 3). Results show that people with an independent self-construal and a promotion focus perceive enriched options as more attractive than impoverished options. Conversely, people with an interdependent self-construal and a prevention focus perceive enriched options as less attractive than impoverished options. Mediation analyses show that the effect of cultural orientation operates through self-construal. In turn, self-construal operates through activated regulatory focus. Analysis of cognitive responses shows that the effect of regulatory focus is mediated by positive/negative thoughts about option attributes.     

Self-construal and the processing of covariation information in causal reasoning

Causal induction provides a nice test domain for examining the influence of individual-difference factors on cognition. The phenomena of both conditionalization and discounting reflect attention to multiple potential causes when people infer what caused an effect. We explored the hypothesis that individuals with an independent self-construal are relatively less sensitive to context (other causes) than are individuals with an interdependent self-construal in this domain. We found greater levels of conditionalization and data consistent with discounting for participants in whom we primed an interdependent self-construal than for participants in whom we primed an independent self-construal.     

Who I am and how I think: The impact of self‐construal on the roles of internal and external reference prices in price evaluations

Drawing from self-construal studies on cognitive styles as well as reference price literature, this research investigates the impact of independent versus interdependent self-construal on consumers' use of internal reference prices (IRPs) and external reference prices (ERPs) during price evaluations. Three experiments reveal that IRPs have a larger impact on price evaluations for participants who are primed with an independent (vs. interdependent) self-construal, whereas ERPs have a larger impact for participants who are primed with an interdependent (vs. independent) self-construal. The differential impact of self-construal on the use of IRPs and ERPs seems to be mediated by a generalized, perceived sense of connectedness/separateness. Implications on reference price research, self-construal and cognitive styles are discussed.     

Evidence for the role of the General Factor of Personality (GFP) in enculturation: The GFP and self-construal in Japanese and American samples

Data from Midlife in the United States (MIDUS) studies, one with American participants and one with Japanese participants, were used to test the hypothesis that the General Factor of Personality (GFP) is positively associated with enculturation. To this end, the relationships between the GFP and independent self-construal and interdependent self-construal were examined. Consistent with the hypothesis, the results showed that an independent self-construal was more closely associated with the GFP in the American sample.     

Contextualized self: when the self runs into social dilemmas

Research on the construction of self and of others has indicated that the way that individuals construe themselves and others exerts an important influence on their cognition, emotion, and even behavior. The present study extends this line of research to mixed-motive situations in which short-term individual and long-term collective interests are at odds. In addition, this study associates the importance of context interdependence, and specifically its interaction with independent self-construal, with an individual's cooperative behavior. We used a priming task to manipulate the level of self-construal and also manipulated the degree of interdependent context by giving participants a chance to assign rewards either to their group members or to themselves alone. The results showed that when participants received interdependent (as opposed to independent) self-construal priming, they consistently contributed highly, regardless of context manipulation. In contrast, those primed with an independent self-construal contributed less in the investment game, but only when placed in a context where group members were encouraged to think about their individual (versus mutual) fate. In this situation they contributed the least to the group in the game. These findings indicate that independent self-construal in a low interdependence context produces the most competitive behavior. The results also showed that how participants felt about their interaction with other group members mediated the effect of context interdependence on cooperative behavior, and possibly that was especially the case for independent self-construal. The results demonstrate that the self can be contextualized and embedded in the social contexts and symbolic systems within which people live.     

"I" Value Freedom, But "We" Value Relationships: Self-Construal Priming Mirrors Cultural Differences in Judgment

The distinction between relatively independent versus interdependent self-construals has been strongly associated with several important cultural differences in social behavior. The current studies examined the causal role of self-construal by investigating whether priming independent or interdependent self-construals within a culture could result in differences in psychological worldview that mirror those traditionally found between cultures. In Experiment 1, European-American participants primed with interdependence displayed shifts toward more collectivist social values and judgments that were mediated by corresponding shifts in self-construal. In Experiment 2, this effect was extended by priming students from the United States and Hong Kong with primes that were consistent and inconsistent with their predominant cultural worldview. Students who received the inconsistent primes were more strongly affected than those who received the consistent primes, and thus shifted self-construal, and corresponding values, to a greater degree.     

Self-construal as a predictor of communal and exchange orientation in Taiwan and the USA

Based on a three-dimensional model of self-construal (independent, collective interdependent, and relational interdependent self-construal), the present study investigated whether self-construal systematically related to exchange and communal orientation with data (357 participants) collected in Taiwan ( N  = 178) and the USA ( N  = 179). United States participants scored significantly higher on all scales except for relational interdependent self-construal. Females exhibited significantly higher scores for relational interdependent self-construal and communal orientation. As predicted, independent self-construal was related to exchange orientation and relational interdependent self-construal was related to communal orientation. However, in contrast to what was expected, collective interdependent self-construal was only marginally related to communal orientation. The findings for scales revised for validity were compared with scales including all items. This comparison disclosed differences for exchange orientation.     

The impact of self-construal on aesthetic preference for angular versus rounded shapes

In this article, the authors examine the role of self-construal in aesthetic preference for angular versus rounded shapes. Previous research found an independent self-construal is associated with a confrontation approach to conflict resolution, whereas an interdependent self-construal is associated with compromise. Furthermore, the literature in empirical aesthetics suggests that angular shapes tend to generate confrontational associations, and rounded shapes tend to generate compromise associations. Accordingly, the authors propose individuals with independent self-construals should perceive angular shapes as more attractive, whereas individuals with interdependent self-construals should find rounded shapes more attractive. The authors argue this effect of self-construal should be more pronounced when people expect that their shape preferences will be evaluated by others because culturally consistent responses will be more accessible in this situation. These hypotheses were largely confirmed in a field study that classified logos from a variety of countries and two experiments in which self-construal was experimentally primed.     

When women can’t do math: The interplay of self-construal, group identification, and stereotypic performance standards

The present research examined the interplay of self-construal (independent vs. interdependent), gender group identification, and performance standards (positive vs. negative) on women’s math performance. Female participants were given a subtle self-prime prior to completing a math test under conditions where either a positive or negative group-based performance standard was rendered accessible. We report an interactive effect of self-construal, gender identification, and performance standard such that a negative (compared to a positive) standard decreased performance under interdependent self-prime (“we”) conditions, whereas the reverse pattern emerged under independent self-prime (“I”) conditions. Importantly, we observed this interplay of performance standards and self-construal only in individuals who self-identify with their gender group whereas performance outcomes of low identifiers were not affected by the experimental manipulations.     

自我建构对内群体、外群体参照效应的影响

内群体身份被视为群体自我,也存在与个体自我类似的信息精细加工效应,并受到文化的影响。自我建构是文化在个体层面的体现,本研究通过两个实验考察自我建构内、外群体参照信息加工的作用。实验1选用记忆参照实验,实验2选用提取诱发遗忘实验,通过代词圈点法启动自我建构,两个实验共同发现：独立自我建构启动时,存在内群参照效应;而互依自我建构启动条件下,内群体信息加工优势消失,没有出现内群参照效应。     

It takes two to mimic: behavioral consequences of self-construals

The present studies demonstrated the moderation of self-construal orientation on mimicry. Recent research has indicated that an interdependent self-construal is associated with assimilation of the other to the self whereas an independent self-construal is associated with minimizing the influence of others on the self (H. R. Markus & S. Kitayama, 1991; D. Stapel & W. Koomen, 2001). Therefore, the authors hypothesized that an interdependent self-construal would be associated with more mimicry than an independent self-construal. When self-construal orientations were experimentally primed, as in Studies 1 and 2, independent self-construals produced less nonconscious mimicry than interdependent self-construals. When self-construals were examined as cultural differences with either a chronically dominant independent (Americans) or interdependent (Japanese) construal of the self, these results were replicated.     

The influence of self-construals on the ERP response to the rewards for self and mother

Individual self-construal (independent vs. interdependent) could be temporarily modulated by the priming effect. Our previous studies have found that when Chinese participants gambled for mother and for self, outcome feedback evoked comparable neural responses between two conditions. However, it remains unclear if the response to rewards for mother and for self would differ after independence self-construal priming. In this study, we manipulated participants’ self-construal (independent vs. interdependent) before a simple gambling task. The event-related potential (ERP) results reveal that when an interdependent self-construal was primed, the participants exhibited a comparable feedback-related negativity (FRN) elicited by outcome feedback for self and for mother. In contrast, independent self-construal priming resulted in a greater FRN elicited by outcome feedback for self than for mother. Meanwhile, the P3 component was insensitive to self-construal manipulation. These findings indicate the modulation effect of self-construal priming on the response to rewards for others.     

蒙、汉大学生的自我构念对知觉加工的影响

首先考察蒙古族和汉族大学生的自我构念特点,并在文化启动下探查自我构念启动对知觉加工的影响。研究发现:(1)内蒙古蒙古族大学生和汉族大学的自我构念表现为互依型倾向,更倾向整体优势知觉加工,蒙古国古大学生表现出独立型倾向,更倾向于局部优势知觉加工。(2)文化启动条件下,自我构念的即时变化影响知觉的加工,独立性自我构念启动下显示出局部加工优先,互依自我构念启动下显示出整体加工优先。该结果提示,不同文化语景的内蒙古和蒙古国的蒙古族个体的自我构念有着差别,文化的嵌入性可促使个体获得主流文化的自我构念,并对知觉过程有影响作用。     

Cultural differences in estimation of other people's self-construals: Comparison of Korea and USA

The current study examined cultural differences in the relationship between individuals' self-ratings and their estimation of others on independent and interdependent self-construals. With data from undergraduates in the USA and Korea, findings showed that, in both USA and Korea, participants rated themselves higher than others on independent self-construal. For interdependent self-construal, however, Korean participants rated themselves higher than others, whereas American participants rated themselves lower than others. The positive relationship between self-esteem and the extent to which self-ratings exceeded ratings of others on independent self-construal was stronger for Korean than for American participants.     

Is the Interdependent Self More Sensitive to Question Context Than the Independent Self? Self-Construal and the Observation of Conversational Norms

Question answering requires close attention to the common ground to determine what the questioner wants to know. Because attentiveness to others is more likely to be a self-defining goal when the self is thought of as interdependent with others rather than independent of others, we predicted that self-construal influences attentiveness to the common ground. In Experiment 1, participants' temporary self-construal was manipulated through a priming technique. As predicted, interdependence-primed participants were more likely than independence-primed participants to take the recipient's knowledge into account and avoided providing redundant information in a self-administered questionnaire. Drawing on chronic differences in self-construal, Experiment 2 replicated these findings with participants from independent (Germany) and interdependent (China) cultures. Throughout, participants' differential attentiveness to the common ground resulted in differential question order effects, raising important methodological issues for cross-cultural research.     

自我-朋友冲突情境下智慧推理的文化差异及其机制

相对于面对自己的人际冲突, 以独立自我为主的西方人在面对朋友的人际冲突时表现更智慧(所罗门悖论)。在以互依自我为主的中国人身上所罗门悖论是否会有不同特点?研究1通过在线平台招募中美两国被试, 随机分配到自我与朋友冲突组考察其智慧推理水平, 并考察自我类型的影响。对齐法与方差分析的结果均显示美国文化下朋友组智慧推理显著高于自我组, 而中国文化下两组差异不显著, 进一步分析发现中国文化下独立自我与冲突类型的交互项显著预测智慧推理。在此基础上, 研究2~4在中国文化背景下, 通过启动不同自我类型, 考察个体在自我或朋友冲突组中的智慧推理差异, 结果显示启动独立自我的朋友组显著高于自我组, 而启动互依自我的两组差异不显著。研究表明所罗门悖论可能只存在独立自我高的人身上, 并不具有普适性。可见心理学研究除了关注样本多样性问题外, 更需关注使用单一样本却默认结论具有文化普适性的研究者。     

Effects of Cultural Orientation,Self-Esteem,and Collective Self-Esteem on Well-Being

This study examined a model of independent and interdependent self-construal, individual and collective self-esteem, and subjective well-being in a sample of college students from the mainland USA, Hawaii, and Japan. Specifically, the mediation role of individual as well as collective self-esteem in the effects of independent and interdependent self-construal on subjective well-being was explored. Results indicated that the hypothesized model fit well. The study found the direct effects of independent self-construal on subjective well-being in all three cultural groups. Collective self-esteem was a significant mediator of the effects of both independent and interdependent self-construal on subjective well-being only in the mainland USA. The negative effect of interdependent self-construal on collective self-esteem was observed only in the mainland USA. Better understanding of both universal and culture-specific aspects of collective self-esteem in promoting subjective well-being seems essential for further theoretical development as well as effective prevention/intervention efforts across three cultural groups.     

“Who I Am Depends on How Fairly I'm Treated”: Effects of Justice on Self‐Identity and Regulatory Focus

Across 2 experiments, we examined motivational processes elicited by justice‐related experiences. Specifically, we examined the effects of justice on recipients' self‐identity and regulatory focus. As predicted, those who experienced unfairness had a strong individual identity and prevention focus owing to the threats of social rejection and economic exploitation communicated by unfairness. Conversely, individuals exposed to fairness had strong interdependent identities and promotion focus owing to the favorable economic and socioemotional information communicated by fairness. These effects were accentuated among participants who reported high sensitivity to injustice and internal loci of control. Our findings are important because they highlight causal associations between justice and key motivation constructs.     

Self-construal priming modulates the scope of visual attention

Although it is well documented that cultures influence basic cognitive processes such as attention, the underlying mechanisms remain unclear. We tested the hypothesis that self-concepts that characterize people from different cultures mediate the variation of visual attention. After being primed with self-construals that emphasize the Eastern interdependent self or the Western independent self, Chinese participants were asked to discriminate a central target letter flanked by compatible or incompatible stimuli (Experiment 1) or global/local letters in a compound stimulus (Experiment 2). Experiment 1 showed that, while responses were slower to the incompatible than to the compatible stimuli, this flanker compatibility effect was increased by the interdependent relative to the independent self-construal priming. Experiment 2 showed that the interdependent-self priming resulted in faster responses to the global than to the local targets in compound letters whereas a reverse pattern was observed in the independent-self priming condition. The results provide evidence for dynamics of the scope of visual attention as a function of self-construal priming that switches self-concept toward the interdependent or independent styles in Chinese.