Stigma by Association: Perceptions of the Dating Partners of College Students With Physical Disabilities

In an investigation of stigma by association, 179 nondisabled students gave free-response and adjective checklist responses in one of four experimental conditions: stimulus person as dating partner of a disabled male, of a disabled female, of a nondisabled male, or of a nondisabled female college student. Adjective checklist results indicated that, as compared with the partners of nondisabled individuals, the partners of disabled individuals were perceived as significantly more trustworthy and nurturant. Content analysis of the free-response item showed that the partners of disabled individuals were more likely to be described as having nurturant qualities than the partners of nondisabled individuals and were less likely to be described as intelligent, sociable, or athletic. Discussion focuses on the significance of these results for understanding disability stigma by association and on the implications of these findings for interaction between individuals with and without disabilities.     

Listener perceptions of stuttering and stuttering modification techniques

PurposeThe purpose of this study was to analyse naïve listener perceptions of speech containing unmodified stuttering, use of the pull-out technique, and use of preparatory-sets.MethodParticipants (N = 62) were randomly assigned to listen to one audio sample (unmodified stuttered speech, speech with pull-outs, or speech with preparatory-sets) and completed a survey assessing perceptions of the speaker’s speech and personality and the listener’s comfort level and willingness to social interact with the speaker.ResultsSurvey results revealed low perceptual ratings in all experimental conditions. Unmodified stuttered speech received significantly more positive ratings than the stuttering modification conditions in all measurements except for speech naturalness. Listeners reported being less willing to socially interact with those who use preparatory-sets than unmodified stuttered speech.ConclusionThe use of stuttering modification techniques did not improve listeners’ perceptions or willingness to interact with persons who stutter. Clinicians and those who stutter should be aware that the use of speech techniques will not decrease negative social interactions or stereotypes.     

Tell me more: The effects of expressed interest on receptiveness during dialog

Two studies investigated the effect of expressed interest on individuals’ openness to opposing viewpoints and perceptions of debate counterparts. Participants in Study 1 engaged in an online conversation with a purported debate counterpart who did or did not express interest in the participants’ viewpoint by asking an elaboration question—that is, a question geared at soliciting additional information. Compared to control participants, participants who received a question rated their debate counterpart more favorably, were more willing to engage in future interaction with their counterpart, and acted in a more receptive manner. Study 2 tested the effects of instructions to prepare elaboration questions on listeners’ responses to a speaker offering counter-attitudinal arguments. Preparing questions caused participants to be more open to the idea of having a conversation with the speaker, to make more positive attributions about typical proponents of the speaker’s viewpoint, and to judge the conclusions of the speech as more valid. Theoretical and practical implications of this research are discussed.     

Social Perceptions as Mediators of the Effect of Speech Rate

Research on the relationship between speech rate and persuasion has provided inconsistent results. Recently, it was proposed that speech rate similarity affects compliance by increasing social attractiveness, which is more important to compliance than speaker credibility. Further, it was speculated that social attractiveness produces obligations to aid the speaker. This experiment tested these claims by predicting that if obligations mediated compliance, social attractiveness would only improve compliance when the speaker benefited from that compliance. In a 5 (Speaker Speech Rate) × 2 (Benefit to Speaker) design, 257 listeners, pretested on their speech rate, were exposed to 1 of 10 requests soliciting volunteers for a bogus research project. As expected, speech rate similarity enhanced social attractiveness, and faster speech rates increased speaker competence and dominance. Social attractiveness had a main effect on compliance, suggesting a direct effect on attraction. Higher sociability/character assessments and lower dominance increased compliance when the speaker benefited more, providing only limited support for the mediating role of obligations. Increased dominance and status also augmented compliance, especially when the speaker benefited less from compliance. Thus speech rate and other nonverbal behaviors may effect compliance by increasing the speaker's social attractiveness, creating obligations to comply, or exerting persuasive force through higher status and power.     

Public Self-Disclosure and Speaker Persuasiveness1

Two experiments were conducted to examine the conclusion of several rhetorical critics that intimate self-disclosure by high-ranking officials will be viewed by an audience as inappropriate and will result in lowered speaker persuasiveness. In Experiment 1 college students viewed a videotape of a speaker described as either a member of an oratory club, a candidate for Congress, or a congressman. Half of the subjects heard a speech in which the speaker revealed some intimate information about himself. Little disclosure was included in the other speech. It was found that the greater the prestige of the speaker, the more self-disclosure was seen as inappropriate. The audience was least likely to be persuaded by the speaker when he was perceived as a congressman who had disclosed personal information. This effect was replicated in Experiment 2, where individual differences in the audience members' l]evels of perceptiveness about disclosure appre priateness were examined. No significant effects for this individual difference variable were uncovered.     

Is self disclosure by a physically handicapped proband reciprocated by the interaction partner? An experimental study of the effect of physical handicap on interaction behavior with non-handicapped interaction partners

An experimental study tested whether an able-bodied person's positive disposition toward a disabled interaction partner was effective in the amount of reciprocation given to the disabled partner's self-disclosure. Sixty female subjects were confronted with either a disabled or nondisabled conversation partner who showed either a high or a low amount of self-disclosure. We anticipated that a "sympathy" effect of disablement in the amount of the subjects' self-disclosure would result from the nondisabled partner's overcompensation. This arises from an effort to compensate the negative, stereotyped attitudes to the disabled in actual behavior toward a single, disabled person by more strongly reciprocating the self-disclosure of a disabled interaction partner compared to a nondisabled one. Results showed that, contrary to expectations, self-disclosure was equally reciprocated with both a disabled and a nondisabled partner. However, a "sympathy" effect was found in the impression judgments on the disabled partner who had shown a high amount of self-disclosure in the previous conversation. The lack of a "sympathy" effect in the amount of self-disclosure was possibly the result of (1) the reciprocation of self-disclosure not being exclusively determined by intentional control processes; and/or (2) the evaluative significance of the amount of self-disclosure not being clear to the subjects in the interaction studied. It is concluded that the efforts of the nondisabled to show an unprejudiced attitude toward a disabled interaction partner are mostly effective in other aspects of behavior than the amount of self-disclosure.     

Communicator credibility and persuasian

Prior research has usually found a positive relationship between a communicator’s perceived credibility and his persuasiveness. An experiment was designed to test the hypothesis that the perceived vested interest of a speaker, the position the speaker advocated, and the social similarity between audience and speaker would influence attributions of credibility and affect the speaker’s persuasiveness. Three variables were manipulated in a 2 by 2 by 2 factorial design. Ss read a speech that either favored (pro) or opposed (con) student voting rights; the speech was attributed to a speaker who was either similar (student) or dissimilar (townie) to the stndent audience and who either had a vested interest (running for elective office) or had no vested interest (merely giving his opinion) :in the position he advocated. As predicted, the similarity of the speaker to the audience, the vested interest of the speaker, and the position advocated in the speech strongly influenced attributions of credibility. However, in contrast to much previous research, persuasion was found to be relatively independent of the variation in the speaker’s perceived credibility. It was suggested that the failure of attributions of credibility to relate to persuasion may have been due to the high degree of ego involvement for the Ss in the topic of student voting rights.     

"Feminism Lite?" Feminist Identification, Speaker Appearance, and Perceptions of Feminist and Antifeminist Messengers

Drawing on a communications model of persuasion ( Hovland, Janis, & Kelley, 1953 ), this study examined the effect of target appearance on feminists' and nonfeminists' perceptions of a speaker delivering a feminist or an antifeminist message. One hundred three college women watched one of four videotaped speeches that varied by content (profeminist vs. antifeminist) and target appearance ("feminine" vs. "masculine"). Self-identified feminists responded more favorably to a profeminist message when it was presented by a feminine than a masculine-appearing speaker and expressed less feminist attitudes after viewing a masculine-appearing feminist speaker. Nonfeminists' evaluations did not vary as a function of speaker appearance or message content. Implications for the communication of feminist ideology are discussed.     

A sociolinguistic approach to the belief-similarity model of racial attitudes

This study examined the belief-similarity model of prejudice from a sociolinguistic perspective. It was hypothesized that normatively regulated speech styles strongly affect observers' assumptions about the cultural background of the speaker. These linguistically based cultural assumptions were expected to override racial characteristics in controlling intergroup attitudes. Stimulus speech styles were Black English Vernacular (BEV) and Standard English (SE). Speech style was expected to strongly affect prejudicial attitudes, with such effects mediated by assumed cultural similarity. Racial label and speech style were expected to be most salient to ratings of “intimate” behavior and among more ethnocentric subjects. Subjects heard taped statements in either BEV or SE, ostensibly delivered by a White or a Black speaker. Subjects rated the speaker on perceived cultural similarity, general evaluation, perceived aggressiveness, and social distance. Speech style had a substantial main effect on each of these variables. Racial label had a marginally significant effect on evaluation, and interacted with ethnocentrism for perceived similarity and social distance. All effects of speech, race, and ethnocentrism were substantially attenuated or eliminated when similarity was used as a covariate. Thus, speech style had substantial effects on prejudice, as did race within more ethnocentric subjects. Both effects were largely mediated by assumed cultural similarity.     

THE EFFECTS OF APPLICANTs' REACTIONS TO COGNITIVE ABILITY TESTS AND AN ASSESSMENT CENTER

Manufacturing applicants' perceptions of two selection devices were examined. In Study 1, applicants ( n = 3,984) completed cognitive ability tests and a survey of reactions. In Study 2, a subset of applicants from Study 1 ( n = 194) participated in an assessment center and completed the survey. Applicants reacted favorably to the procedures but viewed the assessment center as more face valid than the cognitive tests. Applicants who perceived the selection techniques more favorably were also more satisfied with the selection process, the job, and the organization. Although applicants' perceptions of the procedures were related to job acceptance intentions, applicants' liking of the job and organization explained the largest unique variance. In future studies, applicants' job acceptance intentions and attitudes toward the job and organization should be assessed before and after administration of selection devices; not controlling for prior impressions resulted in overestimation of the contribution of applicants' perceptions of selection procedures.     

The effect of increased incentive on free recall by learning-disabled and nondisabled children

Immediate free recall by learning-disabled and nondisabled children was compared under two incentive conditions. Recall of the first few words of each list by disabled children and younger nondisabled children was lower than that by older nondisabled children, and receiving a monetary reward increased early list item recall by older disabled and nondisabled learners. These findings suggest that elaborative encoding processes, such as rehearsal, are impaired in younger disabled and nondisabled children and that receiving a reward increased elaborative encoding by older children. Similar recall of the last few list items by all groups suggests that attention and immediate memory are comparable in disabled and nondisabled children of different ages. Receiving a reward increased recall of the last few list items by younger disabled and nondisabled children, suggesting that a reward increased attention, immediate memory, or both, in these groups. Because receiving a reward increased recall equally in all groups, lower motivation did not appear to be responsible for the lower recall by younger nondisabled children and learning-disabled children.     

Allocation of study time and recall by learning disabled and nondisabled children of different ages

Study time and recall by learning-disabled and nondisabled children of five different ages were examined in a task requiring recall of digits that were presented at the child's own rate. Recall increased with age and was significantly higher by nondisabled than disabled children, particularly at older ages. As additional digits of each sequence were presented, study time by 8-year-old disabled and nondisabled groups were relatively constant, increased in older disabled and nondisabled children, but increased more in older nondisabled children than older learning disabled children. Instructions in hierarchical grouping of digits increased recall by all groups to a similar degree, but the increase by younger children and learning disabled children was associated with longer study times. The results suggest that allocation of study time and recall are developmentally delayed in learning disabled children.     

Values-based Political Messages and Persuasion: Relationships among Speaker, Recipient, and Evoked Values

The persuasive power of values-based political messages may depend on recipients having (1) shared values with the speaker (a type of personal identity match ); (2) shared political party identifications with the speaker (a type of social identity match ); and/or (3) expectations about values traditionally associated with different political parties (an expectancy violation/confirmation ). The independent and joint effects of these factors on the success of a persuasive message were examined, using the theoretical framework of dual-process models of persuasion. Participants (N = 301), classified according to their party identifications and primary value orientations, read a political speech that varied by argument quality, speaker party, and values evoked. Results indicated that value matching promotes close attention to the message, while party mismatching increases message rejection. These effects depend to some extent, however, on expectancies about values traditionally associated with different parties. Participants especially rejected messages from rival party members when the speaker evoked unexpected values. Results are discussed in terms of their implications for the efficacy of values-based political communication.     

Listener perceptions along a fluency--disfluency continuum: a phenomenological analysis

The purpose of this study was to conduct a phenomenological analysis (a qualitative research method) of unbiased listeners' perceptions to six speech samples across a fluency-disfluency continuum. A sample of 60 individuals heard only one sample chosen from three levels of fluent or three levels of disfluent speech. Listeners were interviewed following the presentation of the speech sample and their comments were analyzed with respect to the perception of the speaker's communicative effectiveness. Communicative effectiveness was supported by three phenomenological categories: speaker attributes, listener attributes, and story attributes. Five theme clusters further supported these categories: speech production, context, speaker identity, listener comfort, and story comprehension. The results showed that listener perceptions within theme clusters varied across the six speech samples. The results also showed that listeners differentially respond to a broad array of information in the speech signal (not simply fluency or disfluency). These findings support Traunmuller's (1994) modulation theory associated with information that can be obtained from the speech signal. Implications for the treatment of stuttering are also discussed. EDUCATIONAL OBJECTIVES: The reader will learn (1) how listeners may have multiple and varying perceptual experiences depending upon where along a fluency-disfluency continuum a speech sample is heard; (2) how perceptual experiences are influenced by speaker, listener, and story attributes; and (3) how phenomenological analysis may expand our understanding of multifactorial issues associated with stuttering.     

Fret not thyself: The persuasive effect of anger expression and the role of perceived appropriateness

Anger expression is increasingly prevalent in Western mass media, particularly in messages that aim to persuade the audience of a certain point of view. There is a dearth of research, however, investigating whether expressing anger in mediated messages is indeed effective as a persuasive strategy. In the present research, the results of four experiments showed that expressing anger in a persuasive message was perceived as less socially appropriate than expressing non-emotional disagreement. There was also evidence that perceived appropriateness mediated a negative persuasive effect of anger expression (Study 2–4) and that anger expression resulted in perceptions of the persuasive source as unfriendly and incompetent (Studies 1 and 2). In all, the findings suggest that politicians and other public figures should be cautious in using anger as a persuasive instrument.     

Listener response to stuttering modification techniques

In two investigations, nonprofessional listeners used a 25-item bi-polar adjective scale to evaluate an adult male speaker who stuttered. In investigation one, 24 listeners evaluated the speaker during a Stuttering Only and a Stuttering + Cancellation condition. In investigation two, 50 listeners evaluated the speaker in a Stuttering Only and a Stuttering + Pullout condition. Listeners in the first investigation did not assign significantly different ratings to the Stuttering Only and Stuttering + Cancellation conditions. In the second investigation listeners rated the Stuttering Only condition more positively than the Stuttering + Pullout condition (p < 0.05). Analysis of listener response to four open-ended questions indicated significantly more positive reaction to the Stuttering Only condition than either of the Stuttering + Modification conditions. Finally, listeners rated the speaker using the cancellation and pullout techniques as being significantly more handicapped than when he was stuttering only. The findings provided preliminary evidence indicating that everyday listeners may react less favorably to an adult male speaker who is modifying his stuttered speech than when this same speaker is simply stuttering.     

Task framing and perceived fit: The role of personality,task label,and partner involvement

Two experiments tested the hypothesis that individual differences in social connectedness moderate the association between task frame and perceptions of the task. In experiment 1, 75 participants completed an assessment of relational self-construal prior to engaging in an interview with a partner. Participants then received an explanation that the interview enhanced either relationship skills or occupational skills. Results indicated that high relationals perceived their partner more favorably when the task was framed as relational then when it was framed as occupational. In experiment 2, 185 participants completed self-construal and agreeableness assessments before completing an interview task with or without a partner. Participants then received relational or occupational explanations for the task. The results replicated the findings among high relationals, and also showed that agreeable individuals responded positively when they engaged in a relationally framed interview with a partner. Implications for person–environment fit theory are discussed.     

HYPERFEMININITY AND INFLUENCE

Murnen and Byrne (1991) have defined hyperfemininity as an exaggerated adherence to a feminine gender role as it relates to heterosexual relationships. Hyperfeminine women believe their success is determined by maintaining a romantic relationship with a man, and that their sexuality can be used to maintain this relationship. Extrapolating from theory concerning gender and status, including expectation states theory, it was hypothesized that a woman's expression of hyperfeminine attitudes would lead male college student participants to agree with her in response to a persuasive speech because it would indicate her compliance with women's subordinate status. It was found that men (but not women) who listened to a very hyperfeminine (high) speaker agreed with her more than did men who heard a mildly hyperfeminine (low) speaker, despite the fact that the high hyperfeminine speaker was judged less competent and knowledgeable. Implications of the results, including the idea that the sexual objectification of women perpetuates women's subordinate status, were discussed.     

Applying organizational justice theory to admission into higher education: Admission from a student perspective

Applicant perceptions of methods used in admission procedures to higher education were investigated using organizational justice theory. Applicants to a psychology study program completed a questionnaire about several admission methods. General favorability, ratings on justice dimensions, relationships between general favorability and these dimensions, and differences in perceptions based on gender and on the aim of the admission procedure (selection or matching) were studied. In addition, the relationship between favorability and test performance, and the relationship between favorability and behavioral outcomes were investigated. Applicants rated interviews and trial‐studying tests most favorably. Contrary to expectations based on the existing literature, high school grades were perceived least favorably and there was no relationship between applicant perceptions and enrollment decisions. In line with previous research in the employment literature, general favorability was most strongly related to face validity, study‐relatedness, applicant differentiation, the chance to show skills, perceived scientific evidence, and perceived wide‐spread use. We found no differences in applicant perceptions based on gender and small differences based on the aim of admission procedures. These results extend the applicant perceptions literature to educational admission and the results are useful for administrators when choosing methods to admit students.     

Marital Status Bias in Perceptions of Employees

Three studies documented effects of marital status on perceptions of employees or prospective employees. In Experiment 1, participants rated a married female job applicant as less suitable for employment than a single counterpart. In Experiment 2, participants again perceived a female job applicant less favorably when she was married; in contrast, a male applicant was perceived more favorably when married. In Experiment 3, participants predicted that a recently married woman's job performance and dedication would decline, whereas a recently married man's dedication was predicted to rise; this difference made participants more willing to lay off the woman than the man.