The Innate Bases of Fear

This study addressed the effects of children's understanding of social learning principles on divergent areas of behavior: two indices of self-control, grade scores, personality and conduct problems, immaturity, and subcultural delinquency. Using an orthogonal 2 × 2 (Understanding of Social Learning Principles × Age) multivariate analysis of variance on 44 children, we found no significant interaction or a knowledge of social learning principles main effect.     

The Factor of Sex in Testimonial Accuracy

Abstract

The study assessed the effects of character, professional status, and intentions of a criminal on the magnitude of suggested punishment in a hypothetical experimental setting. The sample was composed of 120 male Indian undergraduates. The analysis yielded a significant main effect of intentions as well as interaction effects of Intentions × Character and of Intentions × Character × Status Factor. The results lend support to cognitive dissonance and attribution theories.     

EXPOSURE TO INDUSTRIAL AND URBAN ENVIRONMENTS AND FORMAL SCHOOLING AS FACTORS IN PSYCHOLOGICAL DIFFERENTIATION

The influence on psychological differentiation exerted by exposure to industrial and urban environments and to formal schooling was investigated with the help of Story-Pictorial EFT administered on 240 7–10-year-old children belonging to the Santhal tribe residing in and around an industrial city in Bihar. A 2 × 2 × 2 ANOVA performed on differentiation scores revealed significant main effects of industrial and urban exposures, and of schooling. Significant 3-way interaction effect indicated that the impact of urbanization in the industrial and non-industrial settings varied with exposure to formal schooling, and that the main effects in spite of their being statistically significant have to be taken with caution. Impact of the three factors on psychological differentiation is interpreted in terms of changes induced through acculturation that alter the experiential base of the individual as well as cultural characteristics of this environment.     

On sample size calculation for 2×2 fixed‐effect ANOVA when variances are unknown and possibly unequal

The factorial 2 × 2 fixed‐effect ANOVA is a procedure used frequently in scientific research to test mean differences between‐subjects in all of the groups. But if the assumption of homogeneity is violated, the test for the row, column, and the interaction effect might be invalid or less powerful. Therefore, for planning research in the case of unknown and possibly unequal variances, it is worth developing a sample size formula to obtain the desired power. This article suggests a simple formula to determine the sample size for 2 × 2 fixed‐effect ANOVA for heterogeneous variances across groups. We use the approximate Welch t test and consider the variance ratio to derive the formula. The sample size determination requires two‐step iterations but the approximate sample sizes needed for the main effect and the interaction effect can be determined separately with the specified power. The present study also provides an example and a SAS program to facilitate the calculation process.     

The Effect of Anticipated Service Interruptions on Disaster Preparedness Intentions1

This study examined the effects of anticipated service interruptions on natural disaster preparedness intentions. In a 3 × 2 × 2 factorial experiment, students were exposed to scenarios with varied levels of anticipated basic service interruption (no mention, low, high), and person‐relative‐to event (PrE) factors shown to affect preparedness (low, high), across 2 types of disaster (earthquake, flood). Results indicated no main or interaction effects related to type of natural disasters, significant main effects for levels of PrE and service interruption, and a significant PrE × Service Interruption interaction. Anticipated service interruption affected preparedness, regardless of level of PrE. Bringing service interruption into awareness increases willingness to prepare, suggesting that public‐health efforts should include messages regarding potential interruption of services.     

EFFECTS OF ETHNICITY,ACCENT, AND JOB STATUS ON SELECTION DECISIONS

The present study investigated the effects of ethnicity, accent, and job status in the selection interview. Two hundred and ten student subjects viewed simulated, videotaped selection interviews in which applicant ethnicity, applicant accent, and job status were manipulated in a completely crossed 3 × 2 × 2 factorial design. Two sets of ratings were obtained, selection decision ratings of the job applicant, and subjective importance ratings based on the previous selection decisions. Significant main effects were obtained for ethnicity and job status in selection decision as predicted. Contrary to predictions however, the main effect for accent was not found significant. Further analysis of the importance ratings indicated a significant main effect for accent, but not for ethnicity. These findings indicated that applicant ethnicity and job status were important in selection interview decision and accent was not. Contrary to this however, subjects considered that accent was important in their selection decision ratings, while ethnicity was not.     

Always on My Mind: Exploring How Frequent,Recent, and Vivid Television Portrayals Are Used in the Formation of Social Reality Judgments

Prior research has found consistent support for the heuristic processing model of cultivation effects, which argues that cultivation effects can be explained by the availability heuristic. The present study represents an experimental test of the heuristic processing model and tests the impact of frequency, recency, and vividness on construct accessibility and social reality beliefs. 213 students participated in a 2 × 2 × 2 prolonged exposure experimental design varying the frequency of exposure to violent television programs, the level of vividness in the programs, and recency of exposure. Dependent measures were accessibility and social reality beliefs. Results showed that reaction times were largely unresponsive to the independent variables. Although there were no main effects for frequency on social reality beliefs, there was a significant interaction between frequency and vividness on beliefs: People watching vivid violent media gave higher estimates of the prevalence of crime and police immorality in the real world in the 3× viewing condition than those in the 1× viewing condition. In concluding, it is argued that this study has important implications for the heuristic processing model, cultivation theory, and research into vividness effects.     

Observer Perceptions of Chronic Low Back Pain1

This study examined the effects of three variables on perceptions of symptoms associated with chronic low back pain: (a) the presence or absence of supporting medical evidence, (b) the valence (positive/negative) of the relationship of an observer to the person in pain, (c) the degree of control (present/absent) of the person in pain over the circumstances of pain onset. The independent variables were manipulated in a (2 × 2 × 2) within-subjects design. Forty-eight undergraduate subjects were asked to estimate levels of pain intensity, emotional distress, and disability for the person in pain described in each of eight vignettes. Significant main effects, a two-way interaction, and a three-way interaction emerged, indicating that these contextual variables exerted substantial and complex effects on observer perceptions. The implications of these findings are discussed for matters such as pain assessment and disability determination.     

Identity Shift III: Effects of Publicness of Feedback and Relational Closeness in Computer-Mediated Communication

Identity shift occurs when an individual's self-perception changes as a result of feedback to her or his self-presentation. This research, the third in a series, further explores the influences of identity shift, specifically exploring the effects of the publicness of feedback to an individual and the relational closeness between the individual and feedback provider on the individual's subsequent self-perceptions of her or his extraversion. An experimental study (N = 56) utilized a 2 (extroverted/introverted) × 2 (private/public feedback) × 2 (feedback from a relationally close/nonclose partner) design. Results of between-groups analysis revealed both main intensification effects of public and relationally close feedback and an interaction effect between the conditions. Findings are discussed with respect to identity shift, the hyperpersonal model, and online self-presentation.     

儿童社交问题解决与其社交地位关系的初步研究

本研究初步考察了小学儿童的社交问题解决与其社交地位的关系。采用访谈法研究了小学儿童在发动交往、维持交往和解决冲突三种情境中的社交问题解决。结果发现,不同社交地位的儿童对社交目标的选择并无显著差别;而在发动交往时,被拒绝儿童更倾向于借助他人帮助。被忽视和被拒绝儿童比正常儿童更少选择言语沟通和解释策略。被忽视儿童发动交往的有效性低于其他儿童,被拒绝儿童解决冲突的适当性低于受欢迎儿童和一般型儿童。     

Effects of multilingualism on Australian infants’ language environments in early childhood education centers

This study investigates differences in the language environments experienced by multilingual and monolingual infants in early childhood education and care (ECEC) settings. The Language Environment Analysis (LENA) technology was used to collect day-long audio-recordings from 181 one-year-old infants (age range from 12 to 21 months). We examined whether infants’ multilingual status predicts the amount of educators’ language input (adult word count, AWC), child vocalizations (CVC) and conversational turns (CTC), as well as interaction effects on AWC, CVC and CTC of infants’ multilingual status and other infant, home and ECEC characteristics. Multilevel mixed effects models revealed no main effect of infants’ multilingual status on the language environment outcome variables. Instead, infant gender significantly predicted adult word count, with female infants hearing more words from educators than male infants. There was a significant interaction effect between the infants’ multilingual status and both their age and length of time in an ECEC setting on child vocalizations. While monolingual infants produced more vocalizations as their age increased, multilingual infants did not show this increase in vocalizations with age. Further, the difference between monolingual and multilingual children’s vocalizations decreased as the length of time in ECEC increased. There were no significant predictors of conversational turns. Findings from this study suggest that early childhood educators do not adjust their talk according to the multilingual status of the infants. However, multilingual infants do not increase their vocalizations as their age increases to the same extent as do their monolingual peers. The interaction effect between multilingualism and the length of ECEC attendance also implies that ECEC environments may be particularly beneficial for supporting multilingual infants’ vocalizations. This study highlights the need to provide pedagogical support to educators to help them to encourage multilingual infants’ vocalizations in ECEC settings.     

The Protestant Work Ethic and Just World Beliefs in Great Britain and India

This study examined Protestant Work Ethic (PWE) and Just World Beliefs (JWB) in Great Britain and India. Secondary school children, university students and adults completed seven PWE questionnaires and the JWB questionnaire. A three-way (sex × occupational status × nationality) ANOVA showed highly significant main effects, particularly for nationality, but few significant interactions. Generally females more than males, Indians more than Britons, and schoolchildren more than adults endorse the PWE and JWB. Possible experimental artifacts and moderator variables are considered along with the possibility that genuine cultural differences were found. These results are discussed in terms of the relevant literature on cross-cultural studies of the PWE and BJW.     

The Higher Structural Phases of Concept Formation of Children

By means of a 2 × 2 × 4 way analysis of variance, modified when needed, the self-disclosing ability (as measured by the Jourard Self-Disclosure Questionnaire) of freshman college students from divorce and nondivorce homes was analyzed. The results of the study provide evidence that, generally, a person from a female-based home of the divorce type does not disclose the self any more or any less than a person from a nondivorce home situation. Also, the father does not play a major role in determining or directing the self-disclosure process of his children.     

Effectiveness of social skills training with children: A meta-analytic study

This meta-analytic study examined the relative effectiveness of three methods of social skills training with socially isolated children: coaching, interpersonal cognitive problem solving, and modelling. An exhaustive search of the published literature in the area produced a total of 43 studies that met stringent criteria for inclusion in the subsequent analysis. Social skills training produced significant improvements in children's levels of social interaction, sociometric status and cognitive problem solving abilities. No training technique produced a significantly greater improvement than either of the others. Isolated children showed larger increases in their levels of social interaction and sociometric status than non-isolate children. Multi-modal training programmes were recommended to capitalize on the independent therapeutic effects which derive from a number of different social skills training techniques.     

儿童视听觉通道现实监控的发展

采用视觉图片和动画,听觉声音和词语任务,分别要求5岁（平均年龄66.5个月）、7岁（平均年龄80.8个月）和9岁（平均年龄117.2个月）共233名儿童在知觉和想象材料中作出来源判断,比较现实监控任务中视听觉通道之间和通道内部的发展差异。结果发现,在通道内部,不同实验材料对现实监控的影响不尽相同。在视觉通道内部：较小年龄儿童对图片的现实监控好于动画,较大年龄儿童对动画的现实监控好于图片;在听觉通道内部：儿童对声音的现实监控好于词。随着年龄的增长,对记忆现实监控的通道差异从视觉的图片刺激优势到图片和动画优势,到视觉刺激和声音对词的优势。文章还讨论了这些发展差异的可能原因,对我们理解个体记忆发展的规律和特点以及对实践的指导意义     

ADOLESCENT PERCEPTIONS OF PARENTAL POWER: DO FAMILY SIZE AND ORDINAL POSITION OF THE CHILD MAKE A DIFFERENCE?*

The literature suggests that parent-child interactions differ in relation to both birth order and family size. There are arguments in the literature concerning whether observed effects should be attributed to structural factors or to such demographic variables as SES and parental education. The present research attempts to deal with some of the theoretical questions and methodological problems encountered in determining mediators of birth order and parental interaction effects. Reports of parental involvement, or indices of such involvement, in 34 interaction areas were collected from 189 Iranian high school students from families of at least 2 children, and were analyzed using multiple regression procedures. In general, results showed birth order effects were mediated by size of family. Respondents from ‘small’ families (of 2–4 children) differed from those from larger families. In large families, first-borns had the most paternal (or the least maternal) orientations. In small families, last-boms had the most paternal (least maternal) orientations. Middle-borns were not significantly different from the first-boms in small or in large families. It is concluded that further cross-cultural studies of differential parental interaction with different birth orders are needed before a theoretical framework can be offered to explain birth order effects.     

AN ANALYSIS OF THE EFFECTS OF MULTIPLE SETTING EVENTS ON THE SOCIAL BEHAVIOR OF PRESCHOOL CHILDREN WITH SPECIAL NEEDS

We examined the effects of four combinations of setting events on the social interactions of 7 preschool children with social delays. In Study 1, the status of the teacher, activity materials, and peer varied across conditions. In Study 2, the status of the teacher and materials varied across conditions. Within the combinations of setting events, we also examined teacher behavior. Teacher presence and absence was varied in both studies. The type and rate of teacher prompting were varied in Study 2. The four combinations of setting events produced different rates of social behavior by the children with social delays. The optimal combination of setting events for promoting peer interaction and reducing teacher—child interaction included teacher absence from the activity, a limited number and form of materials, and children paired with a socially skilled partner.     

The Effect of Defendant's Plea on Mock Juror Decisions

Abstract

The study examined the attributional and attractional effects of admission or denial of a mistake in interaction with the stimulus person's status, the seriousness of the consequences of the mistake, and the certainty of the evidence. The factorial design of the experiment was 2 × 2 × 2 × 3 (Status x Consequences x Evidence x Admission). Male undergraduate college students in Bombay (N = 480) read a passage about a mislabeling incident in a pharmaceutical concern and then rated the stimulus person on several variables. Admission of the mistake elicited the most favorable ratings. The no-statement condition received slightly more negative evaluations than the denial condition. Higher status led to greater responsibility attribution, but seriousness of consequences did not. The most liked stimulus person was the high-status person who admitted his mistake in the condition of serious consequences and ambiguous evidence.     

A comparison of maladaptive behaviors of athletes and nonathletes.

A comparison of maladaptive behavior tendencies of men and women who were athletes and nonathletes was undertaken. Participating students (N = 200) were divided into four groups: male athletes, male nonathletes, female athletes, and female nonathletes. Maladaptive behavior tendencies were determined from responses on C. MacAndrew's (1965) Alcoholism Scale. The statistical analysis used was an independent groups 2 x 2 analysis of variance to determine significant main effects and interaction effects. The mean maladaptive behavior score (MBS) for athletes (M = 21.87) was significantly higher (p < .05) than the MBS for nonathletes (M = 20.24). The MBS for the men (M = 21.68) was significantly higher (p < .05) than the MBS for the women (M = 20.43). No significant interaction (p > .05) between gender and athletic status was found. Male athletes are more likely than the other 3 groups to have maladaptive behavior tendencies. Research directed toward greater understanding and the development of preventive and coping techniques for this population is needed.     

童年期心理虐待对情绪面孔注意偏向的影响

目的 探讨童年期心理虐待对情绪面孔注意偏向的影响。方法 使用儿童心理虐待量表,筛选童年期受心理虐待者18人,对照组19人,采用点探测任务,以成对情绪面孔为实验材料,考查童年期心理虐待对情绪面孔注意偏向的影响。 结果 以反应时为指标得出组别、面孔性质及一致性交互作用显著,在探测点位置与面孔不一致时,心理虐待组对消极面孔的反应时长于积极面孔。以注意偏向分数为指标发现组别和面孔性质交互作用显著,心理虐待组对消极面孔的注意偏向分数高于控制组。 结论 童年期心理虐待对情绪面孔注意偏向存在影响。