公正与关怀——民生制度与实践的伦理原则

从伦理学的视角来看,民生包含三个方面的内涵:一是公民根基性的生存,二是公民尊严性的生活,三是公民理想性的好的生活.基于对中国当下民生的现状及问题的全面把握,政府在民生制度和民生实践中首先应遵循刚性的公正原则,它既能够一般地解决资源供给的有限与人的欲望的无限之间的冲突,又能有效地解决当下民生中的突出问题.但公正原则的普遍性和抽象性决定了它无法惠及每一特殊个体的需求,强调具体性、关系性、情境性、理解与关爱的关怀原则可以弥补这一缺陷.因此,以刚性的公正与柔性的关怀为伦理原则的民生制度与民生实践,将最终引领全体公民过上他们所珍视的和值得过的好的生活.     

Approach and Avoidance Motives and Close Relationships

Despite the fact that humans have a deep motivation to pursue and maintain close relationships, little research has examined social relationships from a motivational perspective. In the current paper, we argue that any model of close relationships must simultaneously account for people’s tendencies to both approach incentives and avoid threats in close relationships. To that end, we review research stemming from Gable’s (2006) social and relationship model of motivation on both the antecedents and the consequences of approach and avoidance goal pursuit in the context of close relationships. We conclude with recommendations for future research in this area.     

Health Implications of Conflict in Close Relationships

We summarize the large body of research conducted over the previous 30 years on the link between interpersonal conflict and physiological outcomes, with a focus on implications for health. Specifically, we review evidence that conflict in close, romantic relationships affects internal bodily processes, including cardiovascular, endocrine, and immune function, as well as objective health indicators. We focus on studies that have utilized standardized, laboratory‐based conflict discussions, as we believe this methodology provides the clearest picture of how conflict affects health. It is our hope that this general overview serves as a useful introduction to the state of the field.     

Close Relationships and Happiness Among Emerging Adults

The present investigation examined the role of multiple close relationships (mother, father, best friend, and romantic partner, if any) in happiness among emerging adults with and without a romantic partner. The results for those without a partner (n = 152) revealed that only the relationship experiences with mother and best friend were predictive of happiness. On the other hand, the findings for those with a partner (n = 159) showed that only three factors, namely mother–child relationship quality, romantic relationship quality and conflict were predictive of happiness. The results for this group also suggested that romantic relationship quality was protective of best friendship conflict; moreover, best friendship quality did not buffer the negative impact of romantic partner conflict on happiness, suggesting a less important role of best friends in happiness. In other words, the findings suggest that when emerging adults are involved in a romantic relationship, friends’ importance in happiness might be less pronounced or not pronounced at all. The results were discussed in light of the literature and suggestions were made for future research.     

Care and Justice in Real-Life Moral Reasoning

Moral reasoning of 57 (Time 1) and 59 (Time 2) nursing, social-work and law-enforcement students was investigated in terms of care and justice reasoning about hypothetical and real-life dilemmas. The analysis methods were the Ethic of Care Interview, the Moral Judgment Interview, Lyons' Moral Orientation Scheme and Wark and Krebs' classification of real-life dilemmas. The type of dilemma predicted moral orientation usage. Prosocial dilemmas pulled for care and antisocial dilemmas for justice orientation. Level of justice reasoning varied according to the type of dilemma. Real-life care reasoning was consistent with participants' competence, with the exception of transgression-type dilemmas at Time 2. Levels of care and justice reasoning were highly correlated with each other. These results underscore the importance of the dilemma type and suggest that care reasoning is a significant part of real life morality. The study recommends the ECI as a new model to account for real-life care reasoning.     

Reciprocity of Dyadic Trust in Close Male-Female Relationships

Abstract

A nonrecursive structural model specified 11 effects on trust in one's partner for 20 engaged, 67 married, and 11 divorced male-female dyads. According to the model, trust between partners is a reciprocally reinforced outcome, and 10 exogenous variables affect trust. The results showed that, for both sexes, there was a reciprocal effect for trust in one's partner, the perception of a partner's desire to control others had a negative effect on trust, and self-esteem had a positive effect on trust. Marital status and the perception of a partner's desire to be controlled had no effect on men's trust in their partners but highly significant negative effects on women's trust in their partners.     

Close Relationships,Gender, and Career Salience

Sex Roles - According to traditional gender roles and stereotypes, men are given the primary role of breadwinners (work orientation), whereas women are responsible for the nurturance of children...     

Social Networks and the Development of Close Relationships

This study examines the linkage between dose heterosexual relationships and their social networks of dose friends and family members. The central proposition of this study states that relational development will be positively associated with each partner's involvement in the other's social network and the degree of overlap in the individual social networks of each partner. Generally, the findings were consistent with this proposition. Among the indicators of network involvement and overlap, the range of network involvement (i.e., number of known members in the partner's network) emerged as the most powerful predictor of relational development. Findings are reviewed in light of existing theories and research, and suggestions for future research are made.     

Ideal Standards in Close Relationships: Their Structure and Functions

This article describes the Ideals Standards Model, which deals with the content and functions of partner and relationship ideals in intimate relationships. This model proposes that there are three distinct categories of partner ideals (warmth-loyalty, vitality-attractiveness, and status-resources), and that ideals have three distinct functions (evaluation, explanation, and regulation). The model also explains how perceived discrepancies between ideals and perceptions of one's current partner or relationship can have different consequences, depending on which of two motivating forces is active (the need to see the partner or relationship positively or the need to be accurate). Recent empirical studies that support some of the main features of the model are described.     

The Meshing of Care and Justice

This essay attempts to work out how justice and care and their related concerns fit together. I suggest that as a basic moral value, care should be the wider moral framework into which justice should be fitted.     

Sexual Lying Among College Students in Close and Casual Relationships1

The current investigation examined the extent and nature of sexual lying in close and casual relationships. Participants were 790 undergraduates recruited from 2 institutions for 1 of 4 studies employing diverse methods—2 experiments, 4 surveys, and a recalled event. Participants tended to tell fewer sexual lies in closer relationships, and those lies tended to be relatively more other‐protective than self‐protective. Also, the more they engaged in sexual lying, the more sexual lying they believed their partners engaged in. Furthermore, individual sexual lying tendencies were consistent across situations. Finally, participants were generally quite honest with their sex partners, and they lied less about risk‐relevant sexual issues than about risk‐irrelevant matters. These findings have implications for safer sex interventions.     

Justice,Care, and Questionable Dichotomies

Throughout the development of an “ethic of care” different from an “ethic of justice,” the relationship between the two has been problematic. Are they theories between which one must choose? Are they complementary? Are they domain-specific? In support of my view that neither is adequate by itself, I here examine the private domain of care of the dying by intimates, and find there important issues both of care and of justice.     

Gender-Role Self-Stereotyping and the Relationship Between Equity and Satisfaction in Close Relationships

Gender-role self-stereotyping was investigated as a moderator of the importance of equity to satisfaction within close relationships in a sample of 204 men and women in long-term relationships. For those low in gender-role self-stereotyping, equity strongly predicted satisfaction, whereas for those higher in gender-role self-stereotyping, satisfaction was predicted by the belief that one's own relationship compared favorably with those of same-sex others. The importance of equity was also investigated by asking participants to predict how they would respond if they found themselves in an overbenefiting or underbenefiting relationship. Predicted responses to inequity were influenced by participants' sex, degree of gender-role self-stereotyping, and the type of inequity imagined. These finding are discussed in terms of the system justifying effects of gender-role stereotypes.     

Close Relationships Between Asian American and European American College Students

Abstract

The authors examined attitudes and behaviors regarding close relationships between European and Asian Americans, with a particular emphasis on 5 major subgroups of Asian Americans (Chinese, Japanese, Korean, Vietnamese, and Filipino Americans). Participants were 218 Asian American college students and 171 European American college students attending a culturally diverse university. The European Americans did not differentiate among the various subgroups of Asian Americans. Their attitudes regarding close relationships were less positive toward Asian Americans than toward Mexican and African Americans, a finding contrary to the prediction of social exchange theory (H. Tajfel, 1975). In contrast to the European Americans' view of homogeneity among Asian Americans, the 5 major subgroups of Asian Americans expressed a distinctive hierarchy of social preference among themselves. Results are discussed in terms of their implications for future research on interethnic relations involving Asian Americans.     

Cognitive Processes in Close Relationships: Recent Findings and Implications for Counseling

Coinciding with the recent growth of professional interest in relationship counseling has been the emergence of important research on the cognitive processes of persons in close relationships. In this article the author reviews selected findings from this literature, which illuminate the attributional, self-evaluation, and self-verification processes of participants in close relationships, and discusses their implications for the counseling of distressed couples.     

Manipulation in Close Relationships: Five Personality Factors in Interactional Context

This research had three basic goals: (a) to identify manipulation tactics used in close relationships; (b) to document empirically the degree of generality and specificity of tactical deployment across relationship types (mates, friends, parents); and (c) to identify links between five major personality dimensions and the usage of manipulation tactics. Twelve manipulation tactics were identified through separate factor analyses of two instruments based on different data sources: Charm, Reason, Coercion, Silent Treatment, Debasement, and Regression (replicating Buss et al., 1987), and Responsibility Invocation, Reciprocity, Monetary Reward, Pleasure Induction, Social Comparison, and Hardball (an amalgam of threats, lies, and violence). The Big Five personality factors were assessed through three separate data sources: self-report, spouse report, and two independent interviewers. Personality factors showed coherent links with tactics, including Surgency (Coercion, Responsibility, Invocation), Desurgency (Debasement), Agreeableness (Pleasure Induction), Disagreeableness (Coercion), Conscientiousness (Reason), Emotional Instability (Regression), and Intellect-Openness (Reason). Discussion focuses on the consequences of the five personality factors for social interaction in close relationships.     

Shifting Paradigms: Theorizing Care and Justice in Political Theory

The following is an introduction to a roundtable panel of the American Political Science Association meeting (Normative Political Theory Division) held September 2, 1994, in New York City. I set out some main themes in the “care/justice debate,” and suggest that the impasse between care proponents and liberal, neo-Kantian thinkers is perpetuated by caricatured construals of these theories; salient differences come into relief by addressing the ethical and political applications of these moral perspectives.